The Problem of National Language in India

It is not surprising that there should be so much confusion and conflict over the issue of language. It is assumed that it is single problem with a unique solution. One group argues that English lan­guage owes its position to British imperialism and that it is inconsis­tent with national self-respect to continue to use it to the exclusion of our beautiful regional languages. A second group contents that, whatever the evils of British imperialism, English has helped Indian nationalism to achieve freedom; that it has been the vehicle of higher education, technology and scientific research and that it has been the invaluable link for forging the unity of India and any attempt to discard it will result in a breakdown of our educational system and take the country back by two centuries in all aspects of modern life A third group is convinced that as all regional languages of India arc well developed and have worth literatures, all of them should have equal status.

There is a lot of confused thinking going on in India today over the problem of finding a universally acceptable link language for the country. The debate on the subject rages 'ad infinitum' in all available forums like the parliament, the press, the platform etc; but none of the many points of view being put forward every day appears to be gaining acceptance. That is so mainly because most of the thinking on the subject is super-charged with emotion and the issues involved have been greatly clouded by the import of pre­judices which can be traced to extra-national loyalties.

What is precisely meant by a ''link language"? The term is of comparatively recent coinage. In the pre-independence years, the same connotation was sought to be conveyed through 'national language'. But the expression underwent a change in meaning when the constitutions-makers of free India conferred the status of 'natio­nal language' on fourteen regional languages (now 15) in use in the country as also on Sanskrit. In the constitution, the term which came nearest to expressing the idea was 'official language'. Over the last two or three years however, even this term has been replaced with another, viz., 'link language'. The change is significant. It is symptomatic of the trend of popular thinking on the subject.

The people were prepared to accept their own regional languages as the 'official' languages in their states. But when it came 10 accepting another Indian language for the purposes of inter-stale and state-centre-communications, they were not prepared to submit to the hegemony of another Indian language. In that context, the word 'official' in the expression 'official language' snacked for imposition and they were not prepared to brook any imposition whatsoever. Hence 'official' had to yield place to 'link' which was found to be more in accord with the spirit of the times.

The context in which the problem has to be considered has radically changed since 1950 when the founding fathers laid down official policy in the matter. At that time, the problem did not appear to be so intractable. The leaders of the national movement had almost unanimously endorsed the choice of Hindi as the official language of India. They were not, however, unmindful of the diffi­culties involved in a sudden change-over. Therefore, they made provision that English should continue to be used for all official purposes for 15 years after the introduction of the constitution, i.e. up to 1965. Even after that, the Parliament was given the option to extend the period, if necessary.

All these precautions were designed to cushion the shock of change by making it a gradual process. Even then, within a few years, the proposed change became the subject of nation-wide debate which has several time assumed the proportions of a law and order problem. In the main, it was a direct consequence of the ruling party's disproportionate pre-occupation with linguism. That led to the reorganization of states on a linguistic basis in 1956 (and the process has continued since). The step, though taken with the object of creating conditions in which the regional languages could flourish and come into their own, encouraged separatism, and strengthened the forces of disintegration. It gave rise to a sort of linguistic patri­otism which gained precedence over nationalism in the affections of a large number of people.

The constitution-makers' decision that English should be re­placed with Hindi in course of time was a sound one. Being under­stood by the largest number of Indians (40 per cent), Hindi was no doubt in the best position to serve as the hand maiden of all other national languages and as such, to replace English as the official language of India, But the new language consciousness injected into the body politic by the ruling party, combined with the aggressive attitude of some advocates of Hindi who insisted on calling it the national language, and a fear being at a disadvantage in the central services made the decision largely unacceptable to people whose mother tongue was not Hindi. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagara leaders called it "a conspiracy to relegate the people of the South to the position of second class citizens.''

As the deadline officially fixed for the replacement of English drew near, representatives of the 'non-Hindi speaking people' as they were called bent their energies towards making sure that it did not happen. They even put forward suggestion that the language clause in the constitution should be suspended and English retained as the official language of India for all time to come. It was to allay their fears that, the late Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, speaking in a debate one the subject in the Lok Sabha on August 7, 1959 said that English would be retained as an alternative official language as long as those who did not know Hindi wanted it. Accordingly, the Official Languages Bill passed by the Lok Sabha in April, 1963 provided that "English may continue to be used after January 26, 1965, in addition to Hindi for all the official purposes of the Union." The measure, however, did not satisfy people belonging to regions where the language in use was not Hindi. They wanted the assurance given by Pt. Nehru to be incorporated into law.

In his life-time, Pt. Nehru had opposed the suggestion for the excellent reason that such a step would 'amount to limiting the powers of Parliament by giving only part of the members the right to decided. This notwithstanding, the demand was pressed forward by every available means—through violent agitation and otherwise. Ultimately, the government had to give in. A draft of a bill seeking to confer statutory status on Jawaharlal Nehru's assurances to non-Hindi speaking people that English would continue as the associate official language of India indefinitely was circulated to state Chief Ministers. It would have been introduced in the 1967 budget session of the Parliament, but had to be held over as comments of some Chief Ministers had not been received before the session came to an end.

From all this, what have we gained? Have we moved forward or backward in the matter? What the opponents of Hindi have managed to secure after a prolonged struggle and many sacrifices can be described as a negative gain at best. They have not been able to suggest a better alternative to Hindi from among all the national languages of India. They have been harking back to English.

How this has come about would bear scrutiny. There are at least three main factors responsible for things having come to such a pass. Most responsible for bringing about this situation has been official in action in not preparing the country for the change-over. The Government failed to take advantage of the long period to create the necessary climate for the purpose. Its forte was inaction, and not action to support this group or that the fears entertained by people who dip not speak Hindi, of being dominated by the Hindi-speaking people in the event of Hindi becoming the sole link language in the country were not totally unfounded.

The second factor which contributed to creating, the impasse we are facing were the protagonists of Hindi. They proved to be the worst enemies of the language for which they sought to gain acceptance as the official language. Instead of accepting it in all humility, they crowed over the role assigned to Hindi and displayed an attitude of arrogant superiority which could not but provoke adverse reaction The third factor which added to the confusion were the chauvinists who thrived on regional and sectarian rivalries. The language issue came handy to them and they used it to whip up popular agitations out of which they made political capital.

All these currents and cross-currents of emotions and motives naturally served to cloud the real issues which, simply stated, were; (i) the fear of domination by one linguistic group over the other; and (ii) probable effect on each region's share in the central services. For lack of a positive approach to the problems, whatever is being done to resolve these issues, viz., retention of English for an indefinite period; the proposed introduction of regional languages as media for U.P.S.C. examinations and lately, their adoption as media of instruction for higher education, is bound to have a distorting influence on our political life and further undermine our already brittle sense of nationhood.

It is essential for the unity of India that graduates of all Indian Universities and technological institutes should form a single intellectual pool. Though, in the Universities of leach State, the medium of instruction may be the regional language to hold on to English at present as the necessary link language at the higher level and hope that at some time in the future, Hindi may also blossom info another such language is all that a far sighted Indian patriot can hope.

functioning of Democracy in India

Democracy has been defined in the words of Abraham Lincoln as 'Government of the people, for the people, and by the people'. All Governments claim to be government of the people. This means that the main task of the Government is to keep the people under control, to realise taxes from them in order to carry on the machinery of the government and to preserve the integrity and security of the country against all hostile forces, whether within or outside the country.

All Governments, even the most dictatorial and tyrannical, profess to be acting for the good of the people. When the British ruled India and held the country by naked brute force, they claimed to be doing so for the good of the Indian people.

Democracy differs from all other forms of government; it professes to be government by the people. This means that the rulers are the chosen representatives of the people, elected from time to time by free and fair elections. By fair election is meant that no under-hand means or undue influences are used to tamper with voting papers after the people had cast their votes.

India claims to be the biggest democracy in the world. Judged, by standards, the machinery for a democratic Government is well established here. Unlike other Asiatic countries except Japan, there is no change here of any sudden military intervention by uprising.

The press is free to express the most hostile criticism of the Government. The people can voice their opinion, however, unpalatable to the functioning Government, at public meetings. Every precaution has been taken to see that from the exercising of the right to vote to the counting of votes, there is no chance of interfering with the actual results.

The ministers are responsible to the elected representa­tives of the people who have the full powers to remove them, if they forfeit popular confidence. There is, no doubt, that the people of India, as a whole have full faith in the superiority of democracy over all other forms of Government.

And yet when one looks at the scene, one feels that something seems to have gone wrong somewhere, and our democracy is not functioning as we would wish or expect. For want of proper education and low percentage of literacy, in the early stages, Indian democracy was 'Buy people', instead of rule 'by the people'. This leads us to question the efficacy of democracy for our country.

There are two factors that militate against the proper functioning of democracy in India. First, success of a rule by the people depends, to a large extent, on an educated electorate. When Disraeli extended the voting right in England, he said. "We must now educate our masters".

In India even after sixty years of independence the minimum education figure has not reached even more than fifty two per cent of the people. As a result, people are easily misled. This can be dangerous for an ignorant and superstitious people. The second of these factors is the existence of innumerable Parties, most of which have no clear-cut ideology or conception of what they really want.

In their hunt for power they make unscrupulous alliances or honey-moons with parties with which they have little or nothing in common, use and play up local or communal passions to win popular support, and bribe them. Such marriage of convenience and regionalism, can frustrate the proper functioning of democratic government and prejudice the minds of the people.

There is a third factor which we have to take into account. We have cast our democracy in the British mould. It is questionable whether a system, suited to a small country like Britain, can be equally suited to the requirements of a large and densely populated country like India. The constituencies are large and spread over extensive areas. The voters have little or no knowledge of candidates seeking their franchise. Wealthy candidates have an undue advantage and money can have corrupting influence, having far-reaching effects on the moral of the people. Some suggest that the Presidential form of democracy, as it prevails in USA will work better in India.

Perhaps democracy would work better if we can evolve the panchayet-based Constitution as Mahatma Gandhi had suggested. Such a Constitution would ensure larger devolution of power on the people and thus make them more responsible as well as conscious of their responsibilities. The British system may be suitable in a country having two parties: where there are too many parties, government becomes unstable and, as a result, bureaucracy gains more power. If democracy has to succeed in India and strike roots, people must begin to think afresh and create a Constitution in conformity with the traditional needs and ideals of the people.

Is Patriotism Enough?

We, in Asia, with our new nationalism are likely to make a fetish or a fad of patriotism. Whereas all the forces of science are designed to make the idea of One World a living reality, some rabid reactionaries in every country are out to exploit popular sentiments and stress isolationist and exclusive policies. Patriotism is a noble sentiment, which has transformed sinners and dacoits into freedom fighters in many lands. But the sentiment tends to be static, outmoded and reactionary.
In Europe, nationalist sentiment developed at the time of Renaissance, till then Feudalism prevailed everywhere. The Spanish Armada made every Englishman a soldier-patriot. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Italy and Germany became nation-States; and their nationalism was consolidated in the 1.9th century.
They developed aggressive, militarist, expansionist, imperialist designs against the rest of Europe under Mussolini and Hitler. The Nazis in Germany and the Fascist in Italy with their super complexes and theories of race superiority and with their exploitation of smaller powers tarnished the fair name of patriotism to such an extent that patriotism today, of whatever country or complexion, has become suspect in the eyes of the world.
Today, the interests of the world are more or less interlinked; there is hardly any room for separatist tendencies. The days of Napoleon, Hitler, Drake and Joan of Arc are over. We need patriots who have a humanitarian internationalist outlook like Mahatma Gandhi, Tagore and Bertrand Russell. Pt. Nehru's ardent patriotism for India was sweetly tempered with his anxiety for the future of the world.
Since mere nationalism could not satisfy the deepest urges of man, a need for international organizations like the League of Nations and the United Nations was felt by humanity after the termination of the two World Wars respectively. Nationalism was so militant and aggressive that it broke down the League, which had all the good and pious intentions but no military sanctions.
But the United Nations has been a little luckier. It has made itself felt in the social, economic and educational sectors of man's life. It has carried relief wherever there have been death, disease, hunger and poverty. It has tried to regulate and control the uses of atomic energy for peaceful purposes. The smaller nations now don't live in constant fear of the bigger nations.
Truly speaking, in the presence of this new world consciousness the old world patriotism sounds obsolete, self- condemned and outdated.
Doctrines like Panch Shil are the direct negation of local, tribal or national patriotism. There are other fields of activity, art, social service, science etc which are equally if not more important than mere patriotism. Dante, Virgil, Raphael and Michelangelo (artists) have raised the name of Italy higher than Mazzini and Garibaldi; Pasteur and Madame Curie by their scientific researchers have lifted the name of France higher than Napoleon ever did; Shakespeare ad Milton in England are remembered more than Gladstone and Disraeli, Tagore, Raman and Ghalib will outshine any contemporary patriots in India.
In this age of atomic diplomacy, to bank on a zealous and burning patriotism on the part of people as the only panacea for all our ills is to shut our eyes to reality. Mere patriotism exercises a sort of brutalizing effect on the sensibility of the masses. Very often the arts and crafts of peace are smashed under the iron heels of the misguided patriots.
Muses have to be smoke-screened; international conscience has to be destroyed; even the fair name of education is blitzed. It is rather strange that the so called patriots always give the artists, literary men, teachers etc a raw deal. The cause is not far to seek. The artists know that the patriotic zeal a momentary passion not meant to last a life-time. Soon, it reveals it dark aggressive and terrorist side.
What was in the initial stage meant to be a noble sentiment turns into ignoble channels and exhausts itself if self-seeking and self-advertising futilities?
Patriotism in its narrow sense curbs and confines the spirit of man; restricts his loyalties; it delimits his vision. The patriot today only hears one music—music composed of the booming of the atomic guns, the hum of the spitfires, torpedoes from submarines, depth-charges and explosion from land and sea-mines.
If we are to improve things, we shall have to discourage that aggressive and militant type of patriotism, which grew in German} the Hitler regime. We will have to root out the Nietzschian Doctrine of superman and the super nation from the body-politic of our educate and evoke instead, social sympathy and an international conscience.
The days of Hitler girls and Rule Britannia tom-boys will perhaps never return. The slogan: "My country right or wrong"; is a challenge to be met by the international conscience of the world which finds its expression through the forum of the United Nations.
Mahatma Gandhi made the love of India a part of his quest for Truth which again is a part of God, the Eternal. Gandhi would have loved to see India die so that the world could live. Only the land of the Buddha, Kabir and Nanak could give such a fine orientation and definition to the word; Patriotism. The cult of patriotism as preached by him is something new after Caesar, Napoleon, Hitler and Mussolini.
It does not glorify the gallows or the guillotine; it only stresses tolerance and understanding. All the finer and the nobler things of life; art, architecture, literature ethics and morality transcend the barriers of race and nationality. Mankind is one; the difference and the divisions are man-made. Our basic needs of food, housing, cloth, society etc are the same.
Only the poets and artists of one country can break through the artificial barrier of a narrow-minded patriotism to establish such spiritual communion with the poets and artists of another country.
Today the many agencies of the United Nations like the UNESCO, ESCAP, WHO, ILO etc are working for the unification of the entire world. Institutions like the Olympics and the Asiad unite all the sportsmen of the world. Mere patriotism cannot create such links between one nation and another.
The days of Pericles of the Greek city States, where local patriotism ruled everything have gone perhaps never to return. In the modern conditions, a small State cut off from the rest of the world has no meaning whatever. The smaller States can survive only in socioeconomic and political collaboration with the other States.
When the final One World patriotism emerges would depend on when the bigger States of the world come to think of forming themselves into a World Federation and start thinking in terms of Ahimsa rather than the Atom bomb!

Nuclear Non-Proliferation

The year 1993 virtually started with the signing of START-II agreement between the USA and Russia which will reduce their strategic nuclear arsenals from nearly 24000 warheads by nearly two-thirds. Coming as it does, on the heels of other arms reduction agreements, this is likely to be increasingly cited in support of nuclear nonproliferation which has been moving up on international security agenda as the Cold War wound down, unprecedented proliferation has taken place consequent to the disintegration of the Soviet Union and continuing socio-economic crises in successor republics.

Pakistan, during the same period, moved its clandestine nuclear weapons programme towards a more explicit status, virtually becoming the sixth declared nuclear weapon state. Iraq’s clandestine nuclear weapons programme, heavily hit during the gulf War, came to light through sheer accident. More than anything else, it highlighted the weaknesses of the existing non-proliferation regime, and the acute difficulties for denuclearization of a clandestine programme.

It is against this background that the future of NPT, as it approaches 1995, needs to be seen. A conference is to be held, as per treaty provisions, in 1995 to decide on one of the three options for extension of the NPT-indefinitely, for a fixed period,, or periods. The mandate for this conference is clear: it is to decide the terms of extension.

It is also necessary to note that the primary motivation for the NPT which came into force in March, 1970 (and the departure from the concept of NPT proposed by India and endorsed by the UN general Assembly in 1965) was to ensure that Germany and Japan, the World war-II defeated states, who by now had acquired the capacity to go nuclear, should be prevented from doing so, Germany and Japan had their reservations, and ratified the NPT only in 1975 and 1976 respectively. And hence the great emphasis on stopping horizontal spread to states beyond the five nuclear weapon states of the period.

The end of the Cold war has highlighted serious contradiction in the nuclear field. First, the altered political and economic relationship between the US (and West Europe) and former USSR has undermined the very rationale of nuclear weapons.

The logic of nuclear weapons having kept the peace in Europe is no vented the armed conflicts going to on in former Yugoslavia and Trans Caucasian region. And yet the USA and Russia, even after START-II, is fully implemented by 2003, would possess 6500 strategic (and unspecified non-strategic) war-heads. There can be cold comfort in the knowledge that the world then could be destroyed only twenty-times as compared to the capacity to destroy it sixty times over at the peak of the Cold War!

Proponents of the Comprehensive test Ban (CTB) in the US have recently wakened up to the fact that it can be used as a step against non-proliferation. In current scenario a CTB will not make a great difference. The logic behind the CTB was that by prohibiting the testing of nuclear weapons it would be halt an arms race between the US and the Soviet Union.

With the collapse of the USSR the context of the CTB has become outdated. But eh concern over proliferation continues ands understandable in the post-Cold wear era. The newly independent states of the former Soviet Union provide a good example of the danger of proliferation. Ukraine as of this moment possesses the world’s third largest nuclear arsenal.

A rough estimate puts the number of its weapons at 176 strategic missiles, 30 bombers and over 16000 warheads-enough to eliminate life on this planet several times over it is significant that Ukraine has not committed itself to the complete destruction of its nuclear weapons.

With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan managed to retain their nuclear weapons. Kazakhstan with the largest arsenal has shown a willingness to sign the NPT and destroy all nuclear weapons by 2000.

Members of the CIS undertook to respect the obligations of the former Soviet Union and follow a multilateral policy towards disarmament at an agreement signed at Minsk in December 1991. This was followed by the four members of the nuclear club of Central Asia signing the Strategic Arms Reduction Teary (START) on May 22, 1992 as a preliminary to the ratification of the START signed between the Soviet Union and US in July 1991. What remains to be seen is whether their action matches their commitments?

The proliferation of well-funded and sophisticated terrorist groups worldwide has lent certain urgency to the question of the future of the nuclear stockpile in Central Asia. The West ha expressed serious concern about these weapons falling into the hands of Islamic fundamentalists. But not all terrorists are Islamic, and if a free market situation arises, the seller would usually go to the highest bidder irrespective of religious affiliations.

The second tier nuclear weapon states (China, France, and UK) are showing no signs of even beginning to reduce their arsenals. All of them are modernizing their nuclear arsenals. China already possesses close to 1600 nuclear warheads.

The issue, however, remains essentially the same that is, the danger of nuclear weapons falling into the wrong hands-be it Leftist or Right-Wing Islamic or non-Islamic.

While India fully believes in the importance of non-proliferation, it hesitates to sign the NPT as the latter does not appear to be an effective guarantee against proliferation. A case in study is North Korea. This country while signing the NPT in 1985 managed to stall inspection of any of its sites by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) till last year as its sites are supposedly engaged in purely civilian nuclear power industry.

Their intentions were made clearer by its withdrawal earlier this year from the NPT. Acceding to reports, North Korea possesses enough material to make at least one bomb. Recently a new missile, the Nodding 1, with a 1000 kilometer range was successfully test fired. US intelligence reports have already indicated North Korea as a major supplier of missiles to developing countries.

June 1993 North Korea revises its belligerent posture by ‘suspending’ its withdrawal from the pact. Yet the deal does not provide the guarantee the Clinton Government desires-that North Korea will open 311 its nuclear facilities to international scrutiny. In fact weapons specialists argue that this retreat is most likely to be temporary and that the agreement leaves North Korea free to continue its weapons development programme while feigning adherence to IAEA regulations.

The NPT so unfair and unequal, because besides the established nuclear powers, it would leave North Korea and others on the nuclear thresholds in possession of nuclear weapons.

Apart from the question of principle involved in India’s refusal to sign an unequal treaty like the NPT which it has adhered to since 1967, this country can hardly forego the nuclear option given its security compulsions. The threat which Pakistan and China pose to India should not be taken lightly. With the former there have already have been three wars.

Pakistan is now actively waging a low intensity war against this country. Reports also confirm that Pakistan is developing the 600 kilometer range Hatf-3 missile based on the Chinese M-9 missile technology which can target Delhi. With China, India has a history of order conflicts. US intelligence reports have confirmed that China has been passing M-11 missile technology to Pakistan. In May 1992, the Chinese exploded a megaton device following it with another test in September, 1993.

India cannot also be singled out for opposing the NPT. China, Brazil, Argentina, Pakistan, South Africa and Israel have all opposed the NPT. It is only in recent years that China, France and South Africa have signed the Treaty.

There is no firm evidence yet of a nuclear-free world and of durable peace. It is for the enlightened leaders of the international community to decide how the tackle the nuclear menace effectively and evolve an arrangement that would he equitable and free of discrimination on any ground-race, color, economic or military status and political complexion.

sorrows and joys of life

Life, to most of us, is a succession of sorrows. This may sound rather pessimistic. Shakespeare through the lips of one of his immortal characters spoke of "the oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contu­mely. Shakespeare's lines find a sympathetic echo in our own hearts, for we are all subject to these and other woes. Man vainly hopes to find in religion and God the sop or solace that life denies.

Almost all religions have a similar prescription. The Christian tells us not to think much of our material possessions, for even if we lose the kingdom of the earth, we will gain the kingdom of Heaven. Islam tells of the gates of Paradise, with all the joys, which we were denied on earth, will open wide to welcome us to eternal happiness.

The Hindus want us to perform our duties without attachment and without any expectation, and one day we will be released from the bondage of worldly life. The Buddhist points to the Eightfold Path that will help us attain Nirvana, which means extinction of all births, rebirth, and desires.

Really few want to escape the sorrows of life by getting rid of what we believe to be the very sources of joy. But we would say rather that the remedy has proved impracticable, since inspite of preaching it for thousand of years, it has not brought man any nearer to the final conquest of sorrows.

The philosopher may deny life but poet Tagore is there to sing of the beauty and blessedness of life. His message comes to us refreshingly, — "Salvation through renunciation, — no, that is not for me." Life is very sweet, brother; who would wish to die? As a matter of fact, if life had not its plentiful store of joys, man would have given up the effort to live as a hopeless business. Our joys, indeed, more than outweigh the sorrows that the pessimists exaggerate. We prefer to be with the poets rather than with the pessimists and weeping philosophers. Every moment of our existence has something to bring us, some prospect of joy, some chance of happiness, some fulfillment of our hopes. Why should we speak of sorrows more than of joys? Thomas Hardly has been dubbed a pessimist when he said "Happiness is an occasional episode (in life) in an otherwise drama of pain."

Whether life is more full of joys than of sorrows, or the reverse, depends on the mental attitude. The burden of sufferings would be unbearable, if they were not constantly relieved by joys. In his heart of hearts, every man believes that sorrow is transient and might even be overcome. The triumphs of socialism and modern science and making the chances for a happier state of life brighter than ever. Not escape but struggle must be our watchword. Above all, we must go all out, with courage and faith, to meet challenge of circumstances — "to have faith in God, keeping our powder dry." Let us learn the great lesson — "joy cannot come unless it be earned." Sorrow, therefore, is the price that we have to pay in order to earn happiness. Let us recall Shelley who sounded the clarion-call—if winter comes, can spring be far behind?

Of course, in the last analysis, most of our sufferings are due to the social conditions in which we live, where the interests of the majority are sacrificed for the few. Had there been equitable distribution of national wealth, three-fourths of the ills of life, poverty and want, non-education and unemployment, starvation and disease would have been eliminated. Hence, the crying need of the society is the social justice.

Superstitions

Illiterate and weak-minded people all over the world often are a prey to superstitions. Their lives are ruled by them and they base their actions on the various superstitious beliefs. Superstitious people can be called backward. They tend to interpret every phenomenon irrationally. They assess a happening illogically and even guide their actions on the basis of these beliefs.

Although most people know that superstitions are based on imagination and are nowhere close to the truth, but quite a few People are still guided by superstitions.

For example some common superstitions are that thirteen is an unlucky number, if a black cat crosses one's path, some misfortune will befall the person whose path was crossed; if one sneezes before beginning a new job, it shall not be completed without any problem, etc. Once these events occur, it becomes difficult for the superstitious person to continue with his work.

Superstitions and 'luck' are closely associated. When a person watches two sparrows, it is believed that he will have abundant joy. The housing of dogs, spilling of milk or salt, walking under a ladder, falling of a picture or mirror is associated with ill luck. There are many superstitions that Indians cling to. These are ridiculous to a person who has a scientific outlook to life. Men with such a bent of mind do not believe in fiction. They require proof and their view of events is always objective. They are not the victims of ignorance.

But now education and science have to a great extent enlightened man. They have unraveled many mysteries and removed a number of superstitions. Even in other countries of the world, superstitions are believed in.

For example, it is believed that if comets appear in the sky, they predict the emperor's doom. Another superstition is that if a person dies of drawing, some spirits await him. The difference is that India is still more given to superstitions while these are fast disappearing in other countries except in a very few backward ones.

Superstitions can never been relied upon. An educated mind is never swayed by them. After all there is no logical connection between an owl's hooting and our approaching calamity. In short, a person can never progress in life if his approach to things is not objective. In fact he should lead people out of ignorance into the light of belief and knowledge.

If You would have Peace, Prepare for War

At first hearing, this piece of advice sounds plausible. It means that if a nation is well-armed and ready for war, other nations will be chary of attacking it. In this way it will avoid war and have peace. Whereas an unarmed nation will be an easy prey to any enemy.

No doubt there is an element of truth in this. In the present state of the world, no nation is safe that relies for its safety solely on the honour and good-will of its neighbours. Witness the fate of Belgium in the first Great War.

In spite of our boasted civilization, and the fine sentiments expressed by governments, politicians and the press, the weak is still the prey of the strong, might is still right, and the final appeal is still to brute force. So long as this state of affairs lasts, any nation is foolish that is not prepared to defend its liberty by force of arms.

But does preparation for war really make for peace? Let us examine this statement, as we would ring a doubtful coin. A tree must be judged by its fruits. In 1914, all the big nations of Europe (except, perhaps, England) were armed to the teeth.

Europe was an armed camp, fully prepared for war. What was the result? Peace? No, War - the most widespread and devastating war in the world's history. It was the enormous enlargement of armies and fleets, the crushing burden of ever growing armaments, and the mu­tual fear and suspicion engendered thereby, which finally resulted in the explosion of the first Great War.

The lesson of that Great War is that if you prepare for war you will have war - war, not peace. That method of securing peace has failed, and failed lamentably. We must take another motto; if you would have peace, prepare for Peace. Let the nations prepare for peace, by cultivating mu­tual goodwill, by the amicable settlement of disputes by ar­bitration, by agreeing to universal disarmament, by friendly co-operation instead of suspicious rivalry.

But the world has not learnt the lesson. Twenty years after the end of the first Great War, Europe was again an armed camp, ready for war. No nation wanted war; all people dreaded it. But fear and mutual distrust, which once more piled up armaments, lighted the match which fell into the powder magazine. Then, the explosion and with what calamitous results we all know but too well!

An Indian hero - SHIVAJI MAHARAJ (short essay)

The history of India is full of the stories of countless heroes and gallants. Their deeds of bravery, gallantry, chivalry and heroism have left indelible marks. Shivaji is one of those Indian heroes who have been acknowledged as the most worthy and remarkable personalities. He was born in 1627. His father Shahji was a small Jagirdar. His mother Jija Bai was a very pious and intelligent woman. She moulded the early life of Shivaji in a way that it dazzled like a star. She infused in him the burning love for his motherland. Right from beginning Shivaji had been a fearless, brave and kind soldier. That is why he is called the ' Defender of the Hindu religion."

His boyhood proved the saying of Wordsworth, who wrote "Child is the father of man." He was very promising, shrewd, intelligent and patriotic right from his childhood. As a matter of fact, his mother was his first teacher who directed the early life and living of Shivaji in a manner that he came to be known as a fearless fighter, a brave solider and great patriot of India.
He could not tolerate as countrymen being oppressed under the tyranny of Muslim rule. So, he collected some chieftains, Jagirdars and others in order to free his countrymen from the oppression. He conquered the state of Bijapur and other Mughal territories. Aurangzeb could not tolerate this and he sent Shaista Khan to fight against him. Shivaji gave Shaista Khan a crushing defeat
Shivaji being a shrewd politician and an intelligent statesman proved more than a match for the tactics of Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb's attempt to imprison him failed. Shivaji also sensed the mischief of Afzal Khan and murdered him before he could attack Shivaji. Aurangzeb once made Shivaji a prisoner in Delhi, but the latter, with his intelligence thought of a plan and escaped from the prison with the help of the jail guards in a basket of sweets.

All that Shivaji grabbed during battles was distributed equally among the poor. In battles, Shivaji observed all the cannons of morality and decency of behaviour; he did not touch children, women and old persons. Rather, they were protected by him. This shows Shivaji's secular outlook and generous heart. Even Khafi Khan, Aurangzeb's court historian, wrote: "Shivaji is a hellish dog. But this dog has certain qualities. He is most secular and generous". Mauser Germaine, the French envoy at the time of Shivaji, also paid tributed to the secular greatness and humanitarianism of Shivaji
Shivaji will go down in Indian history as the defender and saviour of Hindu religion. He gave the enemies of Hindu religion a hard blow and established Marhatta Raj. But after his death in 1680, the entire citadel of Shivaji began to disintegrate because of the quarrels and conflicts among chiefs and jagirdars. But for Shivaji, Aurangzeb would have destroyed the entire Hindu religion. The entire Hindu community is proud of this valiant son of India whose deeds of chivalry and bravery have inspired the millions of Indian youths. Shivaji has become an immortal hero of history of India.

controversial essay on reservation system in India

"It is against the fundamental principles of humanity, it is against the dictates of reason that a man should, by reason of birth, be denied or given extra privileges" -Mahatma Gandhi

The Constitution of India does provide special privileges to the downtrodden sections of society called Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The special provisions were primarily for a limited period often years from the date of application of constitution. There is no fixed period for continuation of this privilege. The constitutional safeguards continued to be extended each time by ten years. before the period of earlier ten years expired.

According to historians, the most important factor in the growth of caste system: was the occupations. Occupations were classified in order of their social status, initially based on Karma and the percentage of the Gunas; Sattav, Rajas, Tamas the system became very rigid. During the British reign, it was proposed that the Scheduled Castes be treated as a separate community and granted separable representation under the Government of India Act 1935. After Independence, the Constituent Assembly Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minorities headed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, recommended special privilege to the Schedule Caste and Scheduled Tribe for a limited period of 10 years. The privileges were meant for the upliftment of the lower castes, but it has become gross abuse in the hand of self-centered politicians and so called Dalit Leaders, Dalit Leaders argue that' higher castes have suppressed the lower castes for a long time, so now they will a have to suffer equally for long period. Some argue that Reservation is a political, social, economic and constitutional policy to accord justice by absorbing the SCs and STs in the social mainstream.

In 1992, the Supreme Court ruled out that reservation quotas could not be applied in promotions of Government employees beyond 1997, but Parlia through the 86th Amendment bill restored the scheme of reservation for SC and ST in promotions too. The government has further given reservation to OBC ( Backward Classes) . Our Prime Minister, Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, pointed that “In an unequal society where the Schedule Castes, Scheduled Tribes OBCs are still suffering from historical disabilities, what they want is Social and empowerment and-not mere welfare. Whatever may be the intensions of Mr. Vajpayee, the point is: Can Social justice be actually restored to such cross sections of society, at the cost of gross injustice to the rest?

While providing privileges in the Constitution for a limited period often years, it was felt that the feeling of casteism would vanish. But even after 55 years of independence, reservation based on birth, has catalyzed the widening gap, caste differences, hatred among different castes. Sixty years of reservations has enabled these Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to occupy most of the higher posts in government offices and institutions. In many cases their hatred towards high caste has been clearly pronounced. This could certainly not be the dream of our founding Fathers. Reservation has resulted in mediocrity and repudiation of quality. With the help of legislative support of reservation, the 'not so eligible' have climbed to the high posts and the better qualified, with high marks are just facing the injustice being done with them. In the educated urban middle class, there is a strong feeling of displeasure, discontent who repeatedly suffer due to their privileged counterparts.

Reservation based on birth has resulted in benefits to already benefitted family again and again. Once a person of reserved caste gets benefit, his social status, economic status become high, now again his family members are getting the benefit thus depriving other needy of his own caste.

For more than half a century, India has maintained quotas for socially disadvantaged classes in government jobs, political bodies and educational institutions. Brahmins and other supposedly privileged groups were left to fend for themselves. Here in the State of Rajasthan, however, the government recently proposed an idea that some say turns the logic of affirmative action on its head: it wants quotas for high caste Indians, albeit on the basis of economic need.

Supporters say they are merely trying to make the system fairer. But to many people, the initiative is yet another example of how interest-group politics is subverting the goals of a vast experiment in social engineering that already bestows preferential treatment on roughly half of India's billion-plus people.

"The existing quotas ... deny the eligible the opportunities they rightly deserve," !be news magazine India Today said in a recent editorial. "Every other day one caste or the other is struggling to be labeled Other Backward Classes .. The quota system, in reality, has become a huge political enterprise."

The trouble began in 1990, when Parliament passed a law reserving another 27 percent of government jobs for members 00,743 lower castes, or "Other Backward Classes". The measure infuriated young upper-caste Indians who saw it as a threat to their employment prospects.

The Supreme Court’s endorsement of the expanded quota system came with the caveat that 50 percent of government jobs should be filled solely on the basis of merit. The court also created a National commission on Backward Classes, which so far has added 676 “socially and educationally” disadvantaged casts to the original list.

In deciding which groups to include on the list, the Commission considers factors such as literacy rates, the prevalence of child marriage and more obscure benchmarks such as whether widows are permitted to remarry (considered a sign of backwardness because upper-caste widows typically do not remarry).

The process can seem arbitrary. India's Muslim minority, for example, is outside the caste system and therefore, has been largely left out of quota policies despite a history of discrimination. Still other groups have been overlooked because "they are so backward, they have no knowledge of the system", said Ram Surat Singh a retired judge who chair the Commission. And some castes are considered backward in some states and forward in the others.

In the mid-1990s, for example, Rajasthan's Jats applied for inclusion in backward-classes list. They cited, among other things, 1931 census data revealed child marriage in their community was more prevalent than among other official backward castes, according to Dharam Vir, a Jat leader.

In 1997, the Commission recommended to Parliament that the Rajasthan Jats be added to the list. But it wasn't until two years later, during a heated election; campaign, that Vajpayee promised to follow through on the pledge, after mass rail by the large and well-organized Jat community.

Although Jats once were tenant farmers, many now own land as a result of independence agricultural reforms, and are, therefore, better off than many higher castes who do not own land, government officials say.

"The Jats got the reservation because of their agitation and political power said C.P. Joshi, a Cabinet Minister in the State's Congress Party government,", recently proposed a 14 per cent quota for upper-caste poor in government jobs. '. parties are fighting for their political survival and they are using the reservation as a tool."

By setting up a Group of Ministers (GoM) to study the possibilities~ Constitution Amendment Bill to provide for job reservation to the forward cast economic grounds, the Union Government has set the ball rolling for yet an controversy on the concept of quotas. The decision to refer the issue to II GoM after the Prime Minister, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, committed himself to constitute amendment at a public meeting in Rajasthan. The Prime Minister's commitment in response to a resolution orchestrated by the Rajasthan Chief Minister, Gehlot, recommending statutory changes to reserve 14 per cent of Government jobs for the poor among the forward castes. Mr. Gehlot's shrewd move put i pressure on the Bharatiya Janata Party's Rajasthan unit, even triggering an internal revolt. A campaign on the same issue by the Social Justice Front has been in full for some time; it gained strength after Jats were included in the list of Other Backward Classes a couple of years ago.

In a State where the forward castes continue to playa significant role in determining election outcomes, Mr. Gehiot's move set the terms of the discourse. With elections to the State Assembly due November 2003, the BJP could not have possibly stayed out of the promise-making game. The high level of unemployment is a general problem, but it is particularly severe among people belonging to the forward castes. The proportion of educated unemployed should after all be higher among the forward castes than among castes kept out of the education system over the years. Political parties across the spectrum can hardly afford to gloss over this reality in a context where the Government continues to be seen as of job provider. Add to this the sense of power that comes with Government jobs in most parts of India and one can understand the desperation in the quest for such opportunities.

A Constitutional Amendment, however, is not as simple as promised by PM, Vajpayee. A proposal to include the poor among the forward castes in the reservation bracket was made by the Congress party in the context of implementing the MandaI Commission's recommendation. The Narasimha Rao Government's proposal to reserve 10 per cent of Government jobs for the poor among the forward castes was struck down as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1992 in Indira Sawhney vs. Union of India. Article 15 (4) of the Constitution, inserted by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951, is very specific. The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes aside, it sanctions special provisions "for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes." Article 16 (4) sanctions reservation in Government jobs for "any backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State."

Article 340 relates to the appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes what is established by a series of Supreme Court judgments is that only social and educational circumstances can be taken as determinants of backwardness. The proposal now is to amend the Constitution but amendments are subject to judicial review and need to avoid falling foul of the 'basic structure' doctrine propounded and refined by the Supreme Court. These issues will come up when the Govt begins to discuss the idea initiated by Mr. Gehlot and endorsed by Mr. Vajpayee. A consensus among political parties might turn out to be a necessary but insufficient condition for making reservation for the poor among the forward castes a feasible proposition.

What all these assurances show that how the quota system has become an integral part of the political game ? NO thought is being given to end this reckless extension of reservation.

The concept of affirmative action began on the right note with reservations only for the SCs and STs, for a limited period of ten years, but now it has become a virtual free for all with not only the backwards, but even a section of the so called forwards trying to secure a slice of the cake. Evidently logic has been overruled by politics.

All our social and religious reformers have tried to break casteism down. It is regrettable that we have not been able to treat all men as equal even today. In modem world there is no place for caste or racial discrimination. What matters is the capabilities of a person and his contribution to the society. By giving reservation to Dalits or Tribes we are inflicting handicaps on those 'more advantageously placed' due to their birth in a particular caste. Our policy makers need to be more pragmatic Reservation of all kinds must be abolished at all , if found essential, it should not be based on caste, creed or birth, but on the basis of financial and economic status and benefits should reach the grass-root level, to the real needy one. Rightly said by Mr. Jetterson, "That all men are created equal, that they all endowed by the creator with certain unalienable rights, life liberty and pursuit of happiness."

Incredible culture of India

Our Languages

Language is an important means of communicating our ideas to others. India is a big country and the people speak many languages. We have eighteen major languages in our country. They are:

1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hindi

5. Kannada 6. Kashmiri 7. Konkani 8. Malayalam

9. Manipuri 10. Marathi 11. Nepali 12. Oriya

13. Punjabi 14. Sanskrit 15. Sindhi

16. Tamil 17. Telugu 18. Urdu

All the languages have their own scripts, most of which are written from left to right. Kashmiri, Sindhi and Urdu use the Arabic script and are written from right to left. Hindi is the official language of India, but English is also widely used.

Sanskrit and Tamil are the oldest Indian languages. All our languages have their own songs, poetry, stories and folktales. Generally two or three languages are spoken by the people of each state in our country.

Dance and Music

Dance and music are an important part of our rich culture. There are two major kinds of dance and music in our country – classical and folk. The folk dance and folk music are generally performed by a group of people of a region or community.

Every part of India has its own folk music and dance. Some of the popular folk dances of India are the Bhangra of Punjab, Nati of Himachal Pradesh, Bihu of Assam, Ghoomar of Rajasthan and Garba of Gujarat.

Folk dances and songs are generally accompanied by loud clapping and shouting. Classical music and dance differ greatly from folk music and dance. The classical dances can only be learnt through training and rigorous practice. The well-known classical dances of India are the Bharat Natyam (Tamil Nadu), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Orissa) and Manipuri (Manipur). Yakshagana (Karnataka) and Kathakali (Kerala) are dance dramas.

India has a long tradition of music. The classical music in our country is of two main styles. These are the Hindustani and the Carnatic, and are based on ragas.

Painting

Early man lived in caves. He used to express his feelings by drawing picture of animals and paints on the wall of the caves. Many caves in India have such paintings. The best wall paintings are to be found in the Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra. These paintings show the dresses of people in bright colors.

Architecture

India is a famous all over the world for its wonderful temples and other buildings. The Indus Valley Civilisation is known for its planned cities. The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath, the Kailash temple in Ellora caves, Meenakshi temple at Maduri, Dilwara temples at Mt.abu, and many more in Khajuraho, Thanjavur, Belur, Konrak , etc., are masterpieces of architecture. The carvings done on marble and sandstone are really wonderful and worth seeing.

The Muslim rulers introduced the Persian style of architecture. They built a number of forts, mosques, tombs and palaces. Many buildings such as Taj Mahal in Agra, Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur, Jama Masjid, Humayun’s tomb in Delhi and forts of Delhi, Agra, Gwalior and Chittorgarh are great tourist attractions.

The Europeans also enriched our architecture by building offices and churches. Some of the popular buildings are the churches in Goa built by the Portuguese. The Victoria memorial in Kolkata, and the Rashtrapati Bhawan and parliament House in New Delhi were built by the British.

Indians have also contributed to the growth and development of architecture after Independence. They have designed and built the Vidhan Soudha in Bangalore, the Assembly House in Mumbai, the Lotus temple in Delhi, and the corporation offices in New Delhi, etc. a number of multistoreyed buildings for offices, residences and hotels are being built in the big cities of India.

Festival

Festivals are celebrated in India almost throughout the year. We celebrate national, religious and seasonal festivals. A festival is an occasion for celebrating some important event connected with our social cultural activity.

We celebrate three National Festivals, the Republic Day on 26^th January, the Independence day on 15^th August and the Gandhi Jayanti on 2^nd October every year. How do you celebrate these festivals in your school? The people of India follow different religions. They celebrate their own religious festivals. The important religious festivals are Diwali, Dussehra, Ramanavami, Janamashtami, Shivaratri, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja, Mahavir Jayanti, Buddha Purnima, Id-Ul-Fitr, Id-Ul-Zuha, Muharram, Gurupurabs, Christmas, Good Friday, and many more.

Many festivals are connected with the change of season. Holi and Baisakhi are the main festivals in north India linked with the harvest season. Pongal in Tamil Nadu and Onam in Kerala are the harvest festivals of south India. The parsis celebrate Navroz as their new year’s day. Festivals times are occasions for happiness and enjoyment. Everybody greets his or her friends and relatives.

All these social and cultural activities in our country have made our lives richer and happier. We are lucky to inherit such a rich culture and wonderful traditions from our ancestors. We must work further to enrich our art, culture and tradition.

India and the Information Technology

The information revolution is driving the world today and in this scene the convergence of three key sectors - information, communication and entertainment (ICE) - holds great promise.
The Indian software industry, with a market capitalization of about Rs. 1,806 billion and revenue of Rs. 215 billion in has begun to make inroads into the Sensex and NASDAQ, and has been instrumental in upgrading global perceptions of India.
Moreover, in the recently -released Arthur Anderson report on the growth potential of the Indian entertainment business - prepared for the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) - the growth projection seem to border on quixotic euphoria.
The take-off of the New Economy has resulted in a flourishing demand for companies providing chip design, web-based design, Internet and telecom software services etc. Supported by an enormous pool of highly skilled professionals available in India, Indian companies have demonstrated their global competitiveness in this field.
India today is only second to the US in terms of the number of English-speaking technical professionals in the world. After showcasing their value in successfully debugging Y2K, Indian design and engineering companies have now entered value-added software services.
Indian companies have established a cutting edge through cost and quality advantages, state-of-the-art capabilities, technically trained and highly reliable professionals, as well as through timely execution and delivery of products. The strong base of national institutes of information technology and engineering colleges provide fodder to the ever-increasing demand for techies. This has influenced several multinationals to establish their research and development (R & D) units in India. The Indian government, too, has contributed to this growth by providing fiscal benefits making available high-speed data communication and infrastructure.
There are, however, major obstacles in the way -lack of domestic computerization, low internet penetration (though this is rising, according to reports), and ineffective cyber laws. What is more, power supply in every region - even in Bangalore and Hyderabad, the cradles of the software boom - is erratic. There must be a regulatory regime incorporating regulations for telecommunications, broadcasting, foreign investment, arbitration, copyright and piracy. While the IT Bill has already been passed^, it must be integrated into a comprehensive broadcast bill, as the distribution of films, music and other entertainment software over the Internet is already dramatically altering the future of the industry.
Any blueprint for sustaining the nascent entertainment boom must be informed by a long-term vision for growth through convergence in the telecommunications, information and broadcasting, and related ministries. It is imperative to correlate existing government facilities with industry needs.
Allied agencies such as the Directorate of Film Festivals, National Film Development Corporation. Films Division, Film and Television Institute of Indian and Doordarshan must be integrated speedily. Concomitantly, a long-term hardware investment in entertainment delivery systems, including telephone, cable, and satellite, digital subscriber line (DSL) and wireless application protocol (WAP) will be required to sustain the software boom.
Unfortunately in India, the film industry-on which both the television and music industries so veraciously feed - does not receive much official encouragement as a major potential foreign exchange earner, as it does in the US, for instance. The US often makes foreign investment conditional on opening up markets to its film industry.
An integrated broadcast legislation would, for instance, help actualise the industry status that the Indian film sector currently enjoys only on paper. This would weaken the criminal funding nexus and pave the way for professionalism and accountability. The industry is currently weighed down by diverse problems, including susceptibility as targets of criminals and film software pirates, as well as immature censorship.
The film industry would also benefit from a uniform national entertainment tax. The present system, driven by political expediency, is characterized by wide disparities, from a 60 per cent tax in Maharashtra to 16 per cent in Andhra Pradesh.
There are ominous signs that must be paid attention, the most important of them being a decline in the number of films made of India, in the recent past. And there is also a dearth of trained personnel. If, however, appropriate steps are taken, India could indeed ride the wave of the new ICE age. There are signs of hope-Indian films are doing well on the foreign market and several films are among top listing abroad. But -and it is a big but - things could get better only if the telecom sector is spruced up.

Socialistic Pattern of Society in India

India under the guidance of Jawaharlal Nehru had accepted socialism as her goal. Socialism implies the social or collective ownership of the instruments of production. It means that the control of production and distribution must be in the hands, not of private owners of capital, but of the community itself.

Orthodox communists equate community with the working class. As a means to exercise, this collective control, they urge the socialisation of the key industries and all-important means of production. But this transformation of society from capitalist ownership into socialism will not be the outcome of an evolutionary process.

Marx, the pioneer of scientific socialism, explained that as the workers or the proletariat gain increasing control of the instruments of production, they will over­throw the capitalist and the proprietored class.

Nehru, of course, never accepted this thesis. That is why he preferred and adopted the rather ambiguous phrase a 'socialistic pattern' instead of 'socialism'.

One may well look for a explanation of this hesitation and half-hearted compromise of Avadi socialism, i.e. according to the resolution of Avadi session of the Congress. In fact, like many American and English thinkers, he chose to regard Marxism as impracticable. He believed with Gandhiji in the possibility of revolution, i.e. radical change of social order by consent, by appeal to the collective conscience of humanity.

Gandhiji thought, such strong moral pressure would be exerted on the capitalists that they would remain satisfied with only 12% per cent profit and hold their wealth in trust for the entire society. This is broadly known as Gandhian Socialism.

A similar concept was advanced years ago by the Fabian socialists headed by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, George Bernard Shaw and others. According to these idealistic thinkers, it will be possible to transfer control of the instruments of production from private owners to the community of workers with the help of the ballot-box (Fabianism). In the recent thesis of a Communist Party, it has been asserted that it is not impossible to reach communism through peaceful democratic means.

The pattern of socialism that India, under Nehru and to some extent under Indira Gandhi, looked forward to, is not to be achieved by the forced liquidation of class interests but by their gradual elimination. This may be by a gradual change of heart such as Acharya Vinoba Bhave contemplated. But failing this, recourse must be had to legislative measures.

In the initial stage, private capital will not be liquidated but restrained; while the welfare of the workers will be gradually safeguarded and raised to more human standards. The instruments of production will be taken over by the State after payment of compensation to their present owners. Mines, Public Sector Steel Industries, Oil Production, Life Insurance and Banks were nationalised by stages. It is pointed out that land-lordism has already been abolished and the Reserve Bank and the Railways have been nationalised.

Steps were being taken to introduce co-operative farming, instead of small-scale farming under individual management. It was claimed that by gradual widening of the scope of these legislations, the country will be socialised without the painful process of a bloody revolution. So the Govt. started buying shares of big industries upto more than 50% per cent, to control them.

That a public sector is slowly developing in the Indian economy is a fact. It is the characteristic of the economy almost of every under­developed country. Ours is, however, a mixed economy in which the private sector is still predominant. The private sector roughly accounts for more than 75 per cent of our economy. Planning needs of a socialistic pattern cannot be met so long as the private sector is so immensely large.

The actual pace of this movement towards socialism was proposed to be set by the successive Five-Year Plans. The object of these plans was to co-ordinate and control the economic life of the State so as to achieve the maximum results towards the social welfare of the community. Production will be regulated by the needs of the com­munity; methods of distribution will be developed to bring consumer goods within reach of the greatest number. For this purpose, private profits have to be controlled and the interests of individuals must give way to the interests of the community.

It sounds very well as far as it goes. But it may be doubted whether the process of change-over will be so smooth. Where private ownership is being liquidated, it is not in favour of the community but of the State. The State will use its resources in the interest of the class, which controls its machinery. It is now obvious from the fact that in the various so-called socialist measures, no effort is made to transfer control to the community of workers.

Hence, we cannot overlook the danger that lies in this pattern of socialism that has so far emerged. Recently a counter-tendency has surfaced. Dr Monmohan Singh, the Finance Minister of the early nineties, advocated allowing liberal investment of foreign capital in our country. Thus, multi-national business and industry have got off to a brisk start here. It is apprehended that in no distant future the multi-nationals, interested only in profits, but without any national moorings, will create a financial crisis.

The pattern is also slowly emerging that under a mixed economy we are suffering from the limitation of socialism without its benefits. Our rights are being slowly curtailed. But in exchange of these, we are not adequately benefited. In the meantime price index in going up.

Hence it seems that certain fundamental steps have to be taken if a genuine socialist pattern is to emerge. Effective association of the working-class with the management in both state-owned and private industries must be achieved. The minimum living wage for the workers must be statutorily determined. Opportunities for employment must expand. Mere abolition of landlordism will make no difference unless the tillers are vested with ownership of land. Workers must be made to feel that the instrument of production, whether land or machinery, will be used in the interest of those who work there. Unless a progressive policy in regard to these matters is taken in band within a few years, socialist pattern for our country may provide to be an illusion.

essential central problems of an economy

Human wants are unlimited but resources to meet these wants are limited. These limited resources can also be put to alternative uses. Scarcity of resources creates the problems of choice making. This is the problem of making the best use of resources.

An economy may also be compared with an individual. Looked at from the point of view of an economy, the scope extends to the adjustment of unlimited wants and scarce means to solve the problems of income, output and employment. These problems are common to every economic system. In every economy, economic resources are limited whereas wants are unlimited.

This is why; every economy has to face the following basic problems. They are the central problems of an economy.

A. Allocation of Resources

The available resources of the economy may be used to produce various goods for different groups and in different manner. It requires that decisions regarding the following should be made.

1. What to produce:

Resources are limited and wants are unlimited. Every demand of every individual cannot be satisfied. Hence the economy has to decide what goods are to be produced and to what extent. What and how much to produce are interrelated. “Guns or butter” is a classic way of describing this dilemma of choice.

Again, the economy has to decide how much resources should be allocated for the production of consumer goods and how much for capital goods. Amongst the consumer goods, the economy will have to decide on the allocation of necessities versus luxuries. The choice between consumer goods and capital goods involves the choice between the present and the future. The economy has to make a choice between the immediate less important wants and more important wants in future.

2. How to Produce:

How to produce refers to the technique of production to be adopted. It means how goods are to be produced. Goods can be produced in large-scale industries or in small scale, village and cottage industries. The economy has to decide between automatic machines and handicrafts. There are various alternative methods of producing a good and the economy has to choose among them.

Different techniques of production would use different quantities of various resources. Production of cloth by handloom is called labor-intensive technique of production.

On the other hand, production of cloth by power loom is called capital-intensive technique of production. The choice between different techniques of production would depend on the factor supply situation and the price of the factors. Resources are scarce. But some resources are more scarce than others.

Hence, those techniques of production should be employed that make the greatest use of the relatively plentiful resources and economies as much as possible the relatively scarce resources. A country with a large population will prefer labor-intensive technique more than a country with a limited population.

3. For whom to produce:

For whom to produce means how the national product is to be distributed among the members of the society. In other words, it means who should get how much of the total amount of goods and services produced in the economy.

Thus the third problem is the problem of the sharing of the national product. The distribution of the national product or income is as important as its generation. Distribution of the national product depends on the distribution of the national income. The more equal is the distribution of income the more equal will be the distribution of the national product.

There is no society where all members enjoy the fruits of production equally. The organization of the economic system determines the distribution of shares among different sections of the society. Under capitalism, the decision is taken on the basis of the purchasing power of the consumers.

The socialistic economy takes decisions regarding goods and services to be produced on the basis of the requirements of the individuals. From the point of view of equity, distribution of the national product or income on the basis of equality seems to be the best. But this may adversely affect the incentive to produce more. This may reduce the size of the national product. Economists have attempted to answer this question from different angles.

B. The problem of Efficiency:

A very important question that can be asked about the working of an economy is: Are the resources being used efficiently. Since resources are limited, it is obviously desirable that they should be most efficiently used. This means that the production and distribution of the national product should be efficient. Production is said to be efficient, if it is not possible to produce more of one goods without reducing the output of ant other goods in the economy. Likewise, distribution is said to be efficient if it is not possible to make any one person better off without making any other person worse off through any redistribution.

C. The problem of Full employment of Resources:

Our means and resources are limited. So they should be fully and properly used. Resources should be wasted. The problem with the economy is how to use its available resources like land, labor, capital and other resources. Resources should be used in such a way that maximum production with minimum efforts and minimum or nil wastage be made possible. Economic development will be obstructed if certain resources remain idle.

The Great Depression of 1930’s bears an eloquent testimony to this fact. Since 1930s economists have started thinking of fuller utilization of limited resources. Under utilization of resources is considered a national waste. Problems of fuller utilization of resources are studied under welfare economics.

D. The Problem of Growth or Resources:

It is also important to know whether the productive capacity of an economy is increasing, static or declining. The increase in productive capacity of an economy overtime is called economic growth. The basic problem of underdeveloped economies is to expedite the pace of their economic growth. In these economies, the rate of economic development must be faster than the rate of growth of population. This will ensure the reasonable standard of living of the people.

In this connection, the economy has to decide about the rate of capital formation, investment and saving. Developed countries are able to achieve higher annual rate of growth than the underdeveloped ones. Thus, the problem of growth is of great importance to all countries. Questions regarding the growth of resources are discussed under Development Economics.

The economic theory is classified as Micro and Macro economic theory by Prof. Ragnar Frisch of Oslo University in 1933. Microeconomics deals with the situation of allocation of resources in the market economy. In such economy the question of ‘what”, ‘how’ and ‘for whom’ to produce are decide on the basis of price mechanism. In a market, economy goods and services are freely bought and sold. Micro means small.

Microeconomics studies the particular aspect of an economy. It deals with the pricing of products. It is elective. On the other hand, Macroeconomics deals with the fuller utilisation of resources. It is aggregative economics. Macro means large or whole. It studies the economic system as a whole. It deals with other general problems of inflation, savings, investment, output, employment etc. It studies the economic system as a whole. The next four chapters of this book constitute the subject matter of microeconomics.

Life is earnest life is real

In the West an ancient philosopher (Charbak) has been con­structed as having said,—eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we may die and the burnt-up body would not come back. A Hindu philosopher also counseled material enjoyment of the present since the future is uncertain and even gloomy. Others counsel escape from the realities of life, since this life is only a maya or an illusion. Against this attitude poet, Longfellow, in his well-known lines, enters a strong protest. He tells us that life is a serious business; it is something real, something that is not the mere shadow or a dream.

That life is real is a glaringly obvious fact. We cannot explain away the fact of our existence; they are only too true and tangible. We feel this reality in our consciousness, in our appetites, in our aspiration, in our joys and sorrows. Life may be pleasant or unpleasant — that depends on many factors; but we feel its tangible reality in the very fact of being alive from moment to moment with the tingle in the blood.

Once we recongnize its reality, our whole attitude to it will change. For then we have got to find a purpose and a meaning in life, and to shape our lives accordingly. We will have to act with a object and fixed purpose.

What that aim and objects are will be interpreted differently. Those who are helplessly tied to modern society with "its sick hurry and divided aim", may be inclined to look upon life as nothing better than a "long headache in a noisy street" or a -walking shadow. But those who study the actual conditions of life and the limitation that those conditions impose on us, will recognize that the supreme business of life is to change the conditions, to supersede when we find them cramping our efforts, and thus win us freedom from our limitations.

There are those who believe that since death is the end of life, "why should life all labour be"? We may occasionally need to escape from reality, but it will never do to forget that life has to be lived on its own terms, and it is not for us to dictate those terms. Indeed, every normal individual, who has common humanity in him, must feel that in the face of human sufferings and human miseries, it is his duty to do his best to improve the conditions of human life and to lessen its sufferings and miseries. Life is work, even struggle. Those who want to escape struggle turn a sannyasi or recluse. Buddha was led by the sight of these to renounce his kingdom so as to be able to devote himself more fully to the task of redressing human sufferings. Christ brought the touch of healing to an afflicted world. Karl Marx taught a practical way of life, based on reason, to do away with the problems and sufferings. It is only by such acceptance of life with a sense of mission that we can each help to make the world a better and happier place than we found it.

Hence, we must read in the works of the poet both advice and a warning. The warning is that we must not waste our life. The advice is that we have to regard life as something real and serious and live our life in this spirit. Roman poet Horace said, "he who postpones the hour of living rightly is like the rustic who waits for the river to run out before he crosses."

Man is a Tool-using Animal

Man is an animal; but he is the only animal that has invented and can use tools. Other animals can use only the weapons or tools with which they have been provided by nature, and which are parts of their bodies, such as teeth, claws, stings, legs, wings, fins. But man, whose natural weap­ons, such as teeth, nails, fists, feet, and so on, are feeble compared with those of many animals, has the intelligence and genius to invent tools and weapons, and these have made him the master of the brute creation.

For example, man cannot run very fast or very far, as compared with horses, deer or ostriches. But he has discov­ered the power of steam and petrol; and by their means he can travel in trains and motorcars at over sixty miles an hour. Man's teeth, as curing instruments, are weak, and his nails feeble, compared with the fangs and claws of lion and tiger; but he has used steel, and made himself knives and chisels, swords and spears. Man's arms and fists are feeble weapons compared with the arms of the bear, the hoofs of the horse, or the trunk of the elephant. But he has discov­ered gunpowder and high explosives, so that with his gun he can kill at a thousand yards, and blow up a ship fourteen miles away with a shell.

Man cannot swim fast or far; but he has invented the rowing boat, the, sailing ship, the steamer and the subma­rine, so that he can cross the water faster than the swiftest fish.

Man has no wings; but he has invented the aeroplane, and can now fly faster and farther than the fastest bird. Man's eyes are weak compared to those of the eagle; but he has invented the telescope, by which he can see stars billions and trillions miles away and invisible to the naked eye; and the microscope, by which he can see the infinitely little. His voice is feeble compared to the roar of the lion or the trumpeting of the elephant; but he has invented the telephone, by which he can speak to others hundreds of miles away; and now wireless broadcasting, by means of which a speaker in London can be heard plainly by listeners in New York or Bombay.

So one might go on multiplying illustrations of the won­derful tools that man has invented for his own use. No other animal uses tools; so it is a just definition to describe man as a "tool-using animal". This is only another way of saying that, while man is physically like many other animals, mentally he is quite different.

Population Explosion And Its Solution

The bomb of population is about to explode unless we adopt the norms of a small and planned family. Not only in India but also in the whole world, population is increasing at a faster rate than ever before, therefore the need of family planning is being felt urgently by all the governments of the world. The pace of the growth of population is so fast that all other plans fail.
Production of goods falls short of demand that is ever on the increase. To control the increasing population, a second planning and effective measures are necessary.
We hear of deaths by starvation. Such deaths are becoming common day by day. The poor Indians cannot afford to bring up their children into healthy citizens unless there is much to feed them. But only health is not going to turn them up into good citizens if good opportunities of education are not offered to them. No parent in the whole world likes to have unhealthy and illiterate children. Thus it is the duty of all us to realize the gravity of situation right now and adopt speedy measures to control the population.
'Force is met with force' is a natural law. So strong action either by the government will not work well. There should not be forced sterilization as this method has a psychological and adverse effect on the physical and mental health of men and women They need to be educated to adopt various natural methods by which further production of children is checked. And self control will be the best of all methods.
People should be warned against having more than two children. Two children can be brought up into healthy citizens to serve the family and the nation. More children mean the extra financial burden and worry for the parents. Late marriage can also be helpful in this direction. Moreover the people should be taught that there is no difference between a boy and a girl.
Thus the problem of population which is eating up our limited resources should be solved as early as possible.
Since Independence our Government has been trying to solve the problem of population. If this problem is solved several other problems will be solved automatically. To understand it we should enquire into the causes, effects and remedies of this problem.
What are the causes of the rapid growth of India's population? in India, early marriage is a rule rather than an exception. Abject poverty of the masses considerably leads to higher birth - rate. People want to increase the number of working hands in the family. They do not seem to have a sense of responsibility of bringing up their children in decent way.
The health revolution, sanitation, hygienic and efficient methods of medical and has considerably decreased the death rate. In fact, the decisive factor behind the growth of India's population is as much the high birth - rate as the dramatic decline in the nation's death - rate.
What has been the evil effect of the abnormal increase in the population of India? The unchecked increase has led to congestion an overcrowding especially in the big cities. There is a great hue and create against the shortage of food stuffs, cloth, houses and other things of necessity and comfort. There is a rapid rise in prices because of the increase in demand.
It has limited the scope of employment. There unemployment and underemployment. Let but not the least, the fragmentation of land among the cultivators is the natural offshoot of i
Forcible methods will not do well to the people. Such methods create a sense of anger against the government. The government is now trying its best to adopt ways and means by which people are learning, though by small degree, their duties and responsibilities towards their family and the nation as a whole. They now know that only a small family can bring lasting happiness to them and their children. We look forward to prosperous nation.

United Nations Organization

The U.N.O. is the world organization that replaced the League of Nations. It provides a forum for states to come together and discuss matters of mutual interest particularly of peace and war. The primary task of the U.N.O. is to maintain and promote world peace and punish the aggressor and promote economic, social and cultural co­operation among states.
It provides machinery for the pacific settlement of international disputes. It performs its tasks through various agencies and organs like the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Eco­nomic and Social Council, the UNESCO and W.H.O. etc.

Origin:

The U.N.O. was conceived as early as 1914, when the Atlantic Charter was drawn up on the principle of equality of states and their freedom to choose any form of government they liked. Representa­tives of 26 governments in 1942 signed the United Nations Declaration on the basis of Adantic Charter.
The United Nations charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50 countries at San Francisco in June, 1945 on the basis of proposals worked out by representatives of the U.K., the U.S.A., theU.S.S.R. and China at Dumbarton Oaks in 1944. The Charter was signed on 26th June, 1945 by 51 nations. The U.N.O. came into existence officially on October 24, 1945.

Objects of U.N.O.:

The objects of U.N.O. are :
(1) to maintain international peace and security;
(2) develop friendly relations among nations;
(3) to co-operate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedom; and
(4) to be a centre for harmonizing actions of nations in attaining these common ends.

Principles of the U.N.O.:

The United Nations Organization is based on the following principles and acts in accordance with them.
1. It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members:
2. All member states are supposed to fulfill in good faith the obligations imposed upon them by the Charter.
3. All international disputes are to be settled through peaceful means.
4. All member states refrain from the use of force in any international dispute.
5. The U.N. Organization is to see that the non-members do not prove to be a threat to international peace and security.
6. The organization shall not intervene in the domestic affairs of a state.
7. The member states are supposed to assist the Organization in any action taken by it in accordance with the U.N. charter.

Membership:

Membership of the U.N.O. is open to all peace- loving nations of the world, which accept the obligations of the U.N.O. Charter, and in the judgement of the U.N.O. are able and willing to carry out these obligations. Those members who signed the Charter on June 26, 1945, are known as original members.
Other states are admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council. Members may be suspended or expelled by the General Assembly on the recommendations of the Security Council. The Security Council can restore the rights of a suspended member.

Organs of the U.N.O.:

It has six main organs :
(1) The General Assembly
(2) The Security Council
(3) The Economic and Social Council
(4) The Trusteeship Council
(5) The International Court of Justice
(6) The Secretariat
It may set up subsidiary organs as it may deem necessary.

Education: Its means and ends

Education is not only imparted in schools and colleges. President Abraham Lincoln spent less than a year at a school, and yet he was the author of the great Gettysburg speech. The school of experience is the most effective school – if only we are devoted students of it. Keen observation through travelling and other means rather than books, experience rather than men, are the best educators and teachers.

Hence, the most effective means of teaching is to make students learn to use their senses properly. Education does not commence with the alphabet; it begins with the mother’s encouraging look, the father’s talks of affection etc. The child must be taught to feel, to observe and to receive impression. In this way, the mind blossoms and opens out. It is ready to receive, absorb and remember. These are the first steps. A mind that is both alert and sensitive will learn easily and readily from all kinds of experiences, whether from life or from books. This is the way in which Shakespeare taught himself, to be the greatest dramatist of the world. Prophet Muhammad learned at the school of Nature and Socrates, the great Greek philosopher, knew through observation. Even Rabindranath bunked school classes but taught himself by reading books.

Perhaps the second step is to teach the child its mother tongue. “First we shall want the pupil to understand, speak, read and write his mother-tongue”, said H. G. Wells. By that means, the mind, which has so long been receptive, will be made active. It will learn to think, to make use of that which it has received. For the great object of education is to energize the mind, - to enable the mind to form judgments, and make decision. Swami Vivekananda has spoken of education as ‘the manifestation of perfection already within man’. What is assimilated by observation is expressed in words, and this is done best in the mother tongue.

After this, the problem becomes simpler. Put the child into any school and he will make good progress. The teacher will guide his learning and correct his judgment and then he is to be left to his resources. He will organize his thoughts. In a word, the student’s mind will be set in proper motion.

The end of education is often mistakenly thought to be the furnishing of the mind. A wisely devised educational system aims at something more: harmonious development of all the faculties of the education- moral, mental, Intellectual and physical. One, who has acquired the capacity to apply one’s mind to facts and problems, will carry method and discipline into any occupation.

Equally important is to train the moral sense. Feelings and passions must be regulated and kept under full control, in thought, speech and action. Gandhiji valued spiritual education most. He expected that students would learn spiritual values by observing and emulating the ways of the teacher. So a healthy and intimate teacher student’s contact is our utmost importance in the scheme of higher education. Not only must one think correctly and creatively; one must act rightly, as a matter of habit. This will create the correct temperament when one will act rightly and spontaneously.

Along with moral and intellectual education, one must devote some time to physical education. A sound mind can only exist in a sound body. The Greeks at the centre of their educational system had the gymnasium. Seeing the boys at play on the rounds of Eton College, the great Duke of Wellington said- “there, i.e. on the play ground was won the Battle of Waterloo.”

A well-balanced personality is what education should seek to achieve. Herbert Spender said, “Never educate a child to be a gentlemen or a lady only, but to be a man or a woman. Education should help a man to be true to himself, to be straightforward and sincere in his dealings and opinions. Our entire system of education, which is at present overwhelmingly book based, must be changed and restructured. Rabindranath Tagore showed us the way at Santiniketan. There lies the key to the future of education in our country.