Essay on India and World Peace

"Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war" wrote Milton it has been humanity's constant endeavor to establish peace on earth and lead a life of prosperity and happiness. Genuine peace consists in the kind of peace that makes life on earth worth living. The kind that enables men and nation to grow and hops and to build a better life of their children, not merely peace in our times but peace for all times to come It is, in fact, the rational ambition of rational men. When the whole world is conceived of as a family, it is certain to have quarrels and conflicting interests similar to those of family. World peace like community peace does not require that each man love his neighbor it requires only that they live together with mutual tolerance, submitting their dispute to a just and peaceful settlement.

The international situation is certainly not likely to hearten a lover of humanity. The nations plead for peace and prepare for war, People talk about peace, human brotherhood, equality of all nations, and welfare of all peoples and the total absence of wars. But they are not ready to give up the cast of mind that leads to strife. That is why; wars were many and grievous though there was a steady growth after about 1652, of reasoned opinion against war as an institution.

Though there has been no end to the intermittent feuds bet­ween various nations, there was a continuing endeavor to establish peace. As Bertrand Russell who has come to be known as Voltaire and Erasmus of the modern age, said, unless mankind were to commit suicide, all war, to settling disputes between states or be­tween factions within the states, must be rendered impossible. Kennedy said that "Mankind must put an end to war or else war would put an end to mankind."

"We have to pave the path for peace", once said Dr. Rajendra Prasad, "our local and domestic peace, peace of the entire world." It is not unusual for the people of the world to hear thoughtful and appealing vistas about peace from India. It is no exaggeration if we call our country as a Mediator for peace in the past and the present. We can proudly quote many instances in the history of our country which undoubtedly prove the anxiety of our people for peace and paint them as Mediators for peace. Mediation for peace is not a new thing to India and there were many insta­nces which can well be our guidelines for the future. People loved peace from the very inception of civilization in our country and they did make efforts to achieve it. People usually witnessed men and women entering jungles for performing penance in quest for peace.

Besides these efforts to promote peace in the world, India tried to curb the proliferation of the nuclear arms. India used many for urns to propagate against the use of Nuclear energy as a weapon for destructive purposes. She was duly rewarded for her efforts when the partial Nuclear Test-Ban treaty was signed in 1963. Mr. Nehru rightly said then that it was a great event and a turning point in the history of our time. The partial Test Ban treaty was a ray of hope.

In the midst of ail these, the world lost one of its leading peace lovers. Mourning the death of Nehru, President Lyndon Johnson said that the best memorial for the departed leader would be a war less world. This glowing tribute characterizes India as the Mediator for peace itself.

With the passing away of Mr. Nehru, our efforts towards mediating did not come to an end. Instead, these have been con­tinued with the same spirit with which our beloved leader carried the message of peace throughout his life. The world breathed a sign of satisfaction when they saw Mr. Shastri pursuing the same ideals as that of Mr. Nehru and taking active part in world politics. The grand example of Nehru was emulated by his illustrious daughter Smt. Indira Gandhi and is now being forcefully and, for once, authentically practiced by our young ebullient and dynamic Prime Minister Sri Rajiv Gandhi.

Non-alignment has been the guiding principle of India's foreign policy ever since she attained independence on 15th August, 1947. Shri Jawaharlal Nehru was the main architect of the policy of non-alignment in the world. It was due to India's non-aligned pos­ture that she could play such a significant role in bringing an end to the wars in these two countries by playing the role of a peace maker. India in those days also played an important part in the solution of other disputes like Congo-Cyprus, Arab-Israel etc. India also formed the five golden principles of 'Panch-sheel' for practical implementation of the policy of non-alignment. In these five princi­ples India preached the policy of non-aggression, non-interference in the internal affairs of one-another, a basis of equality and mutual benefit, respect for one-another's territorial integrity and sovereign to and peaceful co-existence. India's policy of non-alignment also consisted of the principle of anti-imperialism and anti-colonialism. All through, India advanced the cause of the people suffering under the colonial rule in Asia, Africa and elsewhere. Another important principle of non-alignment has been anti-racialism and the elimination of wars in the world.

To conclude, we can say that though mediation for world peace is not an easy task, it should be pursued with zeal and earn­estness. India has played a very important and positive role towards the establishment of world peace, decolonization, and lessening the tension between the American and Russian blocs.

1225 words Essay on Co-operation

Co-operation is one of the most fundamental and associative process of social life. No society can exist without this. It is the root of human life. The term cooperation is the product of two Latin words i.e. 'C o'meaning 'together' and 'operari' meaning 'To work' Hence co-operation means '.joint work' of working together . In other words, co-operation literary means working together for the achievement of common goal or goals.

"Co-operation" says A.W. Green is the continuous and common endeavor of two or more persons to perform of a task or to reach a goal that is commonly cherished". Fair Child writes, "Co-operation is the process by which individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised way for the attainment of common objective". Herrill and Eldredge says, " co-operation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end".

Thus, co-operation is a process of social interaction which takes place between two or more individuals or groups for the achievement of common cherished goal or goals. Co- operation involves reciprocity, common goal, awareness about the consequences of co-operation, the spirit of working together, sharing the result and the required efficiency and skill. C.H Cooley also enlisted some elements of co-operation. They are common goal, rationality, self control and the capacity to organise etc. Thus, the main characteristics of co-operation are as follows:

1. It is an associative process of social interaction, is a conscious process.

3. It is a personal process in which the parties personally meet and work together.

4. It is a continuous process.

5. It is a universal process.

6. It has mainly two elements i.e. common end and organised efforts.

Types of Co-operation:

Different sociologists have classified co-operation into various types MacIver has classified in to two types i.e. direct and indirect co-operation. A.W.Gren has classified in into three types: They are (I) Primary; (ii) Secondary and (iii) Tertiary co-operation. Some other sociologist classified co-operation by taking into account the nature and size of the co­operating groups, forms of relationship involved in the co-operation and the system of regulating behaviors etc. Thus taking into account the above considerations, co-operation can be classified into the following types:

1. Direct Co-operation:

It is just opposite of direct co-operation. Here, the people do different work towards a common goal. In other words, the objective is common but every individual performs a specialised and differentiated function to achieve the end. This type of co-operation is prominent in modern city and industrial society, more particularly in large organisations where there is lack of personal tie or intimacy. This sort of co-operation is also seen in the organistion where the behaviors of the individuals are regulated by customs, tradition, and moored folk-ways or by law.

2. Indirect Co-operation:

It is that type of co-operation in which people directly co-operate with each other by doing a similar cavity to achieve common goal or goals. This type of co-operation is either due to the intimacy or closeness or due to small group tie because the face to face situation is itself a stimulus to the performance of the work. The contribution of the family members towards bringing up and rearing of children, house building, playing together, worshipping together, tilling the field together etc. are the examples of direct co-operation.

3. Primary Co-operation:

It is that type of co-operation in which there is no selfish interest and there is an identity of ends between those who co-operate. Blood relation, mutual obligation are the bases of primary co-operation. This type of co-operation is generally found in primary and small groups like the family, neighborhood and small communities. In the family and within the kin groups sharing each other's happiness and sorrows.

4. Secondary Co-Operation:

It is that type of co-operation in which individuals co-operate with each other for the achievement of their selfish interest. That is why this type of co-operation. Is very much present in secondary groups. It is also found among the members of large economic, political and religious organisations.In these organisations although the people are not fully known to each other still they co-operate each other. This type of co-operation is seen in trade Union, in industry and in government.

5. Tertiary co-operation:

This type of co-operation is intended to meet a particular situation in spite of mutual disliking. In other words, such co-operation is the result of certain compelling circumstances. In such type of co-operation the attitudes of the co-operating parties are purely opportunistic and selfish. Political parties of different ideologies may work together or co-operate each other to defeat their rival, a third party, is an example of tertiary co-operation.

6. Directed Co-operation:

This type of co-operation is found in such organisations where the co-operation is demanded and the individual has to co-operate under the framework of written or oral laws. The modern bureaucratic co-operation is the best example of directed co-operation.

7. Un-directed Co-operation:

This type of Co-operation is automatic, spontaneous unplanned or un directive by nature rather the manifestation of human nature. Various types of help we render in our day-to-day-life, helping a blind to cross the road, helping the driver by pushing a motor car out of the mud etc. are the examples of un-directed co-operation.

ROLE OF CO-OPERATION

As an associative social process, co-operation plays significant role in the social life. Kropotkin termed co-operation as mutual aid and viewed that human life is difficult to survive without co-operation.

History has witnessed the value of co-operation. Egyptian's pyramids the Great Wall of China, the Taj Mahal and other such site signifies the end result of co-operation. In modern society, progress in the field of science and technology, art and literature, agriculture and industry, transportation and communication, trade and commerce etc. would not have been possible in the absence of co-operation.

Human being cannot able to lead a happy and comfortable life without co-operation. What to speak of human being, co-operation is exhibited by some animals like ant, monkeys, tiger, elephants etc. Hence co-operation is the foundation to the living animals and so also to human society. Society exists because of co-operation. It is both a psychological and social necessity for human beings; they cannot lead a solitary life.

Social unity and integration depends upon co-operation. It is the co-operation which mitigates the mutual differences, mental conflicts and inspires people to render possible help to maintain solidarity.

In the family co-operation is indispensable. Without co-operation between husband and wife, happy conjugal life will be a dream. Procreation, up-bringing, protection to newly born child will be impossible. This signifies the role of co-operation to family life.

In the field of production & distribution of goods and services, everybody realises the value of co-operation. In modern times, even to produce the smallest article like (pin) we require the co-operation of a series of workers.

Co-operation is needed to the human being for the satisfaction of his innumerable wants both existed and derived. Further, co-operation is the urgent need of the modern world. Its utility is felt both by the small groups and communities. It has contributed a lot to sort out the ways and means to settle international problems and disputes. Without it the world might not existed at least peacefully. Hence, co-operation is essential in every sphere of individual and social life.

Short essay on If I Were a Cigarette

I have often heard that a cigarette is something bad, and that, it harms the people smoking it. However, at times I feel that after all, when people get addicted to me then there must be something really attractive about me, a cigarette and so, after all it could not be so bad in all its entirety.

If I were a cigarette the first and foremost feel I'd get would be of pride and self esteem as, a thing or an individual becoming a topic of discussion among all circles of a society is, I think in itself a great achievement.

I'd feel really great hearing people talking about me in big meetings of the elite, of meetings of young, men and women and even of children at times. The fact that I am so much talked about would give me the feeling that, I am certainly some one great.

After being so puffed up with pleasure, I'd sometimes pause to think as to why after all am I a topic of debates and discussions? I'd peer into people's discussions and their loud thinking and then realize that I am being talked of so much because I am bad for my consumer's health.

The thought that I bring harm to those who use me and love me dearly would bring in depression and at once, my pride and self-esteem would be dumped.

As soon as I would understand that I am being talked of so much not for the love of me but I'm bad, I harm my thoughts would wander and I'd start contemplating on means of making myself less harmful - but how? I would feel absolutely helpless in the matter and then feel sad for mankind.

However, even at this stage of depression I'd be glad for at least one thing - that is, my consumer loves me and after all this love is the most cherished sentiment in the world This feeling would once again boost up my spirits and I'd start feeling proud of myself once again.

The most wonderful thing about me is that, though my consumer simply burns me, I stay so close to him, his lips kiss me till I am totally consumed, and become ash.

The love I get in my life is just immeasurable, and my last moments are spent on the lips of my lover - can anyone else compete with me in my death and destruction? No- I'm sure not. Not even the human beloveds of my lovers get this loving final touch though they also end in ash just like me.

I feel that, if I were a cigarette no matter how 1 lived, but, a beautiful and loving death was assured, right on the lips of my lover.

525 words essay on an Ideal Teacher

Teaching is a noble profession. The teacher is a respected person. In ancient India the teacher had a place of respect next to one’s mother and father. In those days, men of wisdom with unlimited knowledge were teachers. Students used to go in search of such teachers to get educated. ‘Guru’ as the teachers were then called was very much respected by society. ‘Guru’ enjoyed a lot of respect even with the king of the land. Education was then limited to a few.

In courser of time, education was democratized. Education was open for all irrespective of caste, class, creed or place of birth. There arose a need for many schools and also for many teachers. We have now all kinds of teachers teaching from pre-primary level to the university level. Among all teachers, who is an ideal teacher? All teachers may not be ideal teachers. However, there are many ideal teachers even today. They are a class of their own.

An ideal teacher to be so called should possess a few special abilities. The students love their teacher as their hero. They would like to follow every word that the teacher says and every action that he does. The influence of such a teacher on the students is so much that whatever he says is considered as truth, and whatever he does is considered to be perfect.

An ideal teacher should, therefore, have a good personality and abundant knowledge. He should know the psychology of students and also their individual problems. Knowledge is ever growing and so an ideal teacher should always prepare his lesions before he enters the class.

An ideal teacher is confident in his class. His voice is clear. What he says should have clarity. If he has knowledge of allied subjects, it would also help him to teach better. He is punctual, neatly dressed and disciplined. His character is perfect and spotless.

An ideal teacher should consider himself as a parent to his students. Every student is to be looked after with affection. He should pay attention to a backward student as he does to a bright one. An ideal teacher joins his students in co-curricular and extra curricular activities too. He plays with them, sings with them and is always friendly. The students consider an ideal teacher a friend, philosopher and guide.

An ideal teacher is also sociable. His dealings with other teachers and parents are always cordial. He is happy and also makes others happy.

Teaching is a professional job. It requires technical knowledge of teaching. An ideal teacher is well trained for his job and is scientific in teaching and evaluation.

An ideal teacher is devoted to his work. Only those with an aptitude for teaching would prove to be ideal teacher. It is said that a nation’s future is shaped in its classrooms, and the man who shapes it is the teacher. A school teacher is said to be worth a thousand preachers.

An ideal teacher gets credit and respect for himself, for his school and for his country. Ideal teachers are honored in our country with national awards and State awards on the Teachers’ Day’.

Essay on the God and Goddess of Ancient India

Though during the earlier period only male gods were worshipped but in course of time the wives of the gods, whose existence had been recognized even earlier, began to be worshipped. The worship of mother goddesses started only in the Gupta period and continued to be in vogue till the wave of devotional Vaishnavism swept Northern India with the arrival of the Muslims.

However in certain parts like Bengal and Assam, the mother goddesses continued to be worshipped. The prominent mother goddesses which were worshipped in ancient India included Parvati, the wife of Siva, Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, Mahadevi (the great goddess), Sati (The Virtuous), Gauri (The Fair one), Annapurna (The Bestowed of Food), Mata (The mother) in various aspects. In the grim aspects the mother was known as Durga (inaccessible), Kali (the Black one), and Chandi (The Fierce). Lion is represented as the usual mount of the goddess in fierce mood.

In addition to Vishnu, Siva and mother goddesses, the people of India also worshipped lesser gods. The popularity of the different gods differed in different periods. Some of these gods represented the natural Phenomena, The most prominent lesser gods worshipped by the people included Brahma (The Prajapati of later Vedic times), Sifrya (the sun), Indra, the Vedic war-god, Varuna, Yama (The death God), Kubera (lord of precious metals, minerals, jewels and wealth), Soma, Vayu (the wind god), Agni (fire), Kartikeya, Ganesha, Hanuman, Kama (desire) etc.

In addition to the various gods and demigods, the people in ancient India worshipped certain animals and plants. Amongst the animals the cow was given the maximum regard and five products of the cow- milk, curd, butter, urine and dung- were considered significant because they possessed great purifying potency.

The bull was also given honor as the mount of Siva. In most of the Siva temples the image of Nandi (bull) finds a prominent position and is honored with offerings. The snake was another animal which was given great reverence by the people of ancient India. The legendary serpents like Sesa and Vasuki were given great regard and worshipped. Offerings were made to the snakes at the beginning of the rainy season.

Amongst the prominent plants and trees which were worshipped by the people mention may be made of pippala or asvattha. The tree of Asoka was worshipped mainly by the women who were keen to have children. The plant of tulsi, which was connected with Vishnu, was also worshipped specifically on the village side. Kusa and Durbha, two types of grass, were also considered sacred from the Vedic times onwards.

Certain rivers were also considered sacred and were worshipped. Ganga was given the highest regard, which according to the Indian traditions sprang from the foot of the Vishnu, flowed over the sky in the form of the Milky Way (Mandakini) and then fell to earth from the matted locks (Jata) of Siva. Often Ganga was personified as a goddess and worshipped. The other rivers which were considered sacred included Yamuna, a tributary of Ganga, Saraswati. Narmada, the Godavari, the Krishna and Kaveri. Certain lakes like the Manasa near Mount Kailasa and Puskara Lake near Ajmer, were also considered sacred.

The practice of animal sacrifices which was popular during the Vedic period declined in the subsequent centuries and once again became popular only in the middle age, with certain devotees. These devotees killed the animals without any complicated ritual before the sacred icon and justified it by pointing that the soul of the victim went straight to heaven. However, by and large it was not approved by the People. The animal which was sacrificed included buffaloes, goats, sheep’s and cockerels. Human sacrifices were also practiced. We learn of girls being kidnapped to provide human sacrifices in secret rites.

1000 words essay on the History of Writing

You must have read about the Theory of Evolution put forth by Charles Darwin. Darwin developed the theory 'Survival of the Fittest'. As humans evolved and pro­gressed, they devised equipment and methods, by which their lives could become more fruitful and comfortable.

In order to progress, you need to communicate. One of the earliest methods of communication was, of course, writing. Humans could speak and think. What then urged them to write? Before we move on, answer the following questions:

• Do you think it is important to communicate? Why?
• With whom do you communicate? What do you communicate?
• What are the various means through which you communicate?
• Which is the most effective means of communication?

Have you ever locked yourself in an empty room which has no paper or pen, no television, no radio, no telephone, no books, no computers? How, do you think you would feel after an hour?

Humans felt the need to remember things that were important to them—such as the number of deer they had stored away, or the num­ber of days between one full moon and the next. They needed artificial aids to help them remember just as you need a pencil and a notebook to jot down a friend's address or the day's homework at school.

In fact, before humans discovered that they could write, they had start­ed using all kinds of devices to assist their memory. These unique, odd aids were practically the first steps towards writing.

Tree trunks or poles were chipped with marks every day to make a sort of rough calendar. This helped people to keep track of the seasons.

For shepherds, the simplest way of keeping count of sheep was with the help of pebbles in a sack!

The Incas of South America used knotted ropes known as 'quipu' to remember things. The strings were dyed in diverse colours. Red meant 'war', 'soldiers'. Yellow meant 'gold'. And five yellow knots came to mean 'five gold pieces'!

Some people used sticks with notches to represent different things. Often these were explained to a messenger. 'Tally' sticks were also used. These had notches on them to indicate money owed. Each person in the deal kept a piece of stick. These fitted together or 'tallied' to prove that nobody had cheated

Even today, some of our communities like the Santhals tie one or more knots in a piece of cloth or at the end of a sari to remember things. Each knot is untied as the object it stands for is accomplished.

With the passage of time, as people needed to remember more and more things such aids became more elaborate. They preceded 'picture writing', which was the second stage in the growth of writing.

Symbolic Writing

Early humans used the rocky walls of their caves to draw geometric patterns and crude pictures of animals, birds and hunting scenes. The pictures were like a series of clumsy strokes made with a pointed stone. They probably 'wrote' on tree bark, bones and flat stones too.

With time, as people became more civilised, their simple drawings began to take on more meaning. A picture of the sun came to mean a day. Two marks next to the sun would mean two days. Two feet meant walking. And you can guess what an eye with drops falling from it would mean- crying or sorrow! These pictures were not connected with any particular sound of a language yet. They just stood for certain ideas in people's minds. They are called 'ideograms', and they could be understood by anyone any­where.

Phonetics

Many centuries passed. Humankind's accumulation of wisdom and know­ledge made it necessary to record this in more complex picture signs. Old pictures began to be grouped together now for new ideas like a 'tree-house'. Undoubtedly, they were becoming more difficult to understand, but this was an important step in the direction of alphabet writing.

With long use, these pictures became simpler and faster to write—until a couple of lines meant 'tree' or 'house'. Thus the writer no longer had to draw the whole picture.

People did make mistakes in understanding pictures. For example, if a person left a message for his or her friend in picture writing, the friend could think it meant something else altogether.

Picture writing posed another difficulty too. It was nearly impossible to create and remember signs for thousands of words and names, as human vocabulary grew.

Many, many hundreds of years later images began to represent sounds instead of actual objects or ideas. 'Five sheep' could now be expressed by two symbols corresponding to the two words instead of by five separate pic­tures of sheep. Thus the spoken language and written symbols began to be related. This was also the beginning of 'phonetics' or signs which repre­sented the sounds of speech.

At first, ideograms were used along with the signs that stood for certain sounds. From here, people around the world began to shape writing into their own scripts. Distinct civilisations like the Sumerian and the Babylonian, the Harappan, the Egyptian, the Hittite, the Chinese and the North and the South American created scripts for their own ways of writ­ing.

Thus the art of writing grew, though the pace varied. Mankind finally reached the last stage in the creation of a script by using syllables (units into which a word may be divided) and alphabets. No longer was there a firm visible connection between sounds and letters or signs. The new let­ters or signs did not mean anything by themselves but could be used together in all sorts of ways to represent words. These sets of new letters were called alphabets. The letters were further divided into consonants and vowels.

A combination of vowels and consonants made the words sound easier and hence learning became an enjoyable experience.

As people became more sophisticated, they improved their writing form by introducing spaces between words, creating punctuation marks and para­graphing. Artistic forms of writing came to be conceived, which we call 'cal­ligraphy'.

670 words essay on Autobiography of a Rupee Coin

I had no life earlier. I was a metal. Some more metals like silver, zinc etc., were mixed and made into an alloy. The State mint gave me a shape, a life and a new name. I am a newly born one rupee coin and I joined the heap of my elder brothers minted earlier. Some more younger to me minted later joined me in the heap. All of us were glittering and shining, waiting without knowing our future.

One day the Manager of the mint moved us to the weighing machine. Weighing thousands of us at a time we were packed into boxes where we had no air to breathe. We were put into a train going south. After two days we reached Chennai and got deposited in a grand building called the Reserve Bank of India. Here again it was all dark, protected on all sides with armed guards guarding us all the time. We talked to one another, how valuable we were. Boxes before us were going out at the rate of two or three everyday. Then came the turn of our box. The box was lifted and handed over to the cash section. A beautiful place with a lot of light, air and sea breeze. That was the first happy day after our birth. All of us in the box stayed together all these days. But unfortunately the cashier is putting out tens and fives of us and giving to different people.

Ninety nine other brothers and I, fell into the hands of a pious merchant living in Georgetown. He took us to the prayer room, placed us before his deity, said his prayers and deposited us in his iron safe. There we found new companions - gold coins, nickel coins, copper coins, paper notes and gold and silver ornaments. It was a grand museum.

Another four of us and I were picked up on Deepavali day by our master. He gave me out to a vegetable seller all alone. My brothers were similarly given to others in exchange for other commodities. My new master was a lady. She tied me up in a corner of her sari. She was so pleased with my new shape and brightness. Many of our clan came to her and left. But she never gave me away. In a way I can say that she fell in live with me. She carried me to market, to temple, to cinema, to beach and to all places. I was really enjoying her company seeing new men and new places.

One day when my lady boss was sleeping she lost grip over me. I was allowed to roll out of her room to be found by her naughty son. He became my new boss. He played with me hitting me up and down. Everytime when 1 fell down, I cried with pain. My young boss laughed at my cries and repeated his acts. I was praying to God to get me out of his hands. That day came soon when I was exchanged for an ice-cream. The vendor became my new boss, who on his travel to Hyderabad took me with him. I was feeling happy that I was again travelling in a train. But midway another person who wanted change got me. He was a very rich person travelling from place to place on pilgrimage.

I was still bright and glittering. So my new master kept me with him for a month. I saw places of pilgrimage like Tirupati, Sirsailam, Bhadrachalam and Simhachalam before I reached Visakhapatnam along with my boss. From there I, along with my boss, (raveled by air to Allahabad where he wanted to have a dip in holy Prayag. I was happy that I was joining him in the holy dip. But alas! There I was left to sink down in the holy 'Sangam' where I still lay buried. I am still lying there unseen, unheard and unused. I will be there as long as Ganga and Jamuna flow.

511 words short essay on International Policies

Man has many needs which can only be satis­fied in company with others. Some of the needs are common to some members who form a group for their satisfaction.

So, these needs keep the members of a group together. However, some of the needs differ from man to man and from group to group. Difference in the importance attached, the methods adopted, and the way it is pursued, lead to disagree­ments and conflicts among the groups.

Action is also taken to resolve differences through persuasion and pressure. All these activities under­taken for the satisfaction of needs give rise to what we term Politics. Politics, in this way, means achieving one's own purpose or realising one's own interest through persuasion or pressure at the cost of others.

Prof. Quincy Wright defines politics as "the art of influencing, manipulating, or controlling major groups so as to advance the purpose of some against the opposition of others".

Politics thus refers to the existence of groups, disagreement and conflict among them, and the tendency to control or influence minds and actions of others. In this way, conflict is the most important feature to identify an activity as political.

However, politics generally tends towards the management of conflict. Management of conflict is done through the element of power or capability. The faculty that controls or influences the actions of others is known as Power. Politics without power is unthinkable.

This politics when taken to the field of nations is known as International Politics. International Politics thus does not mean conflict alone. It means co-operation also. It is through both- conflict and co-operation that national interest is sought to be realised.

There is, however, abundance conflict rather than co-operation. The process of politics is set into motion by the application of power for influencing or controlling the behavior of others. Thus, power serves essentially as a means. It is why politics is regarded as a struggle for power.

The struggle for power is carried in through foreign policy. But foreign policy is not all politics. Foreign policy, however, lends a great help in understanding international politics.

In spite of the fact that conflict is the most important element of politics, there are others who regard it as an activity of conciliation and consensus building. Resolution of conflict may be achieved through violent or non-violent means.

That is why even co-operation within the States also falls within the area of political activity.

Charles Reynold sums up the whole position in these words: "Inter­national Politics refers to the process by which conflicts arise and are resolved at international level.

In this environment nation-States try to serve their national interest by means of their policies and actions which may be in conflict with those of other nations.

Thus, the study of inter­national politics is the study of conflicts, how they originate, how the parties to the conflict be have in an attempt to deal with conflict and how they are resolved.

Its study also involves an examination of political system context—the Constitution and norms, within which the conflict takes place".

1464 words free essay on learning in the Internet Age

In the last several years, many observers of education and learning have been stunned by the abundance of information online, the ever-faster fundability of answers, and the productivity of online 'crowds', which have created information resources like Wikipedia and YouTube. There are three common strands of current thought about education and the Internet. First is the idea that the instant availability of information online makes the memorization of facts unnecessary or less necessary. Second is the celebration of the virtues of collaborative learning as superior to outmoded individual learning.

And third is the insistence that lengthy, complex books, which constitute a single, static, one-way conversation with an individual, are inferior to knowledge co-constructed by members of a group. Though seemingly disparate, these three strands of thought are interrelated. Each tends to substitute the Internet for individual learning and knowledge.

The Internet is now the fountain of knowledge and that students need not memorize particular facts such as historical dates. It is enough that they know about the Battle of Plessey without having to memories that it was in 1757. They can look that up and position it in history with a click on Google. This view is common enough among the Wikipedia users who sometimes declare that since the free online encyclopedia is so huge and easy to use, they feel less pressure to commit 'trivia' to memory.

Before the Internet, most professional occupations required a large body of knowledge, accumulated over years or even decades of experience. But now, anyone with good critical thinking skills and the ability to focus on the important information can retrieve it on demand from the Internet, rather than her own memory. On the other hand, those with wandering minds, who might once have been able to focus by isolating themselves with their work, now often cannot work without the Internet.

Which simultaneously furnishes panoply of unrelated information whether about their friends’ doings, celebrity news, or millions of other sources of distraction? The bottom line is that how well an employee can focus might now be more important than how knowledgeable he is. Knowledge was once an internal property of a Person, and focus on the task at hand could be imposed externally, but with the Internet, knowledge can be supplied externally, but focus must be forced internally.

The point is merely that we can now learn less than we have learned in the past, again because the Internet is such a ready mental prosthesis. But to claim that the Internet allows us to learn less, or that it makes memorizing less important, is to belie any profound grasp of the nature of knowledge. Finding out a fact about a topic is very different indeed from knowing about and understanding the topic.

Reading a few sentences in Wikipedia about some theories on the causes of the Economic Meltdown does not mean that one thereby knows or understands this topic. Being able to read anything quickly on a topic can provide one with information, but actually having knowledge of or understanding about the topic will always require critical study. The Internet will never change that.

Moreover, if you read an answer to a question, you usually need fairly substantial background knowledge to interpret the answer. For example, if you have never memorized any dates, then when you discover from Wikipedia that the Battle of Plessey took place in 1757, this fact will mean absolutely nothing to you. Indeed, you need knowledge in order to know what questions to ask.

The point of a good education is not merely to amass a lot of facts, but to develop judgment or understanding of questions that require a nuanced grasp of the various facts and thereby develop the ability to think about and use those facts. If you do not have copious essential facts at the ready, then you will not be able to make wise judgments that depend on your understanding of those facts, regardless of how fast you can look them up. If public intellectuals can say that the Internet makes learning or memorizing facts unnecessary because facts can always be looked up, then we have come to a very low point in our intellectual culture. In fact, the ability to learn new things is more important than ever in a world where you have to process new information at lightning speed.

Reading, writing, mathematics, and basic science have hardly changed in the last one hundred years. Even accepting that some of our understanding, especially in more advanced education, has been replaced (as in nuclear physics and geography) or refined (as in biology and history), the vast body of essential facts that underline any sophisticated understanding of the way the world works does not change rapidly. Hence, unless one learns the basics in those fields, Goggling a question will merely allow one to parrot an answer not to understand it.

However, there are some new specialized fields such as knowledge management, computer programming, and social media in which there are relatively few basics that everyone is taught, but in most fields, there is certainly a body of core knowledge. To possess a substantial understanding of a field requires not just memorizing the facts and figures that are used by everyone in the field but also practicing, using, and internalizing those basics.

In the new age of Internet, searching is only one way in which the Internet is being made to substitute for the difficult work of developing individual minds. Another way is to suggest, often vaguely, that collaborative work via the Internet makes more traditional modes of study old-fashioned and also unnecessary. The first attack is on the content of learning; the second is on the method.

Online collaborative learning can be an excellent method of exchanging written ideas and obtaining free public reviews of students' work, on wikis. But there is no reason to think that adopting online conversation will necessarily reproduce, in students, either the motivation to pursue interests or the resulting increase in knowledge.

The Internet in general is the greatest educational tool that has been devised since the invention of the printing press. On Internet, you can even listen to another person reading it to you, but you must mentally process it yourself. No one else, certainly no group, can do your reading for you, no matter how helpful they may be in discussing it or summarizing it. Similarly, you may post your essays online in public blogs and benefit from comments others offer, but you will not become well educated unless you engage in the essentially solitary act of writing, no matter how much others may assist you with drafts and no matter how much you may help others with collaboratively written papers.

Similarly, you may get tremendous help solving problems in your math and science classes by working in groups, online or off, but ultimately the knowledge and skills developed are your own. After you have engaged in a study session with others, you had better make sure you can do the problems by yourself. If you cannot, you probably do not understand the material.

We are undergoing a transformation in which it seems that blog and Twitter posts, Wikipedia and YouTube contributions, which arguably weaken our attention capabilities, are becoming dominant in our culture and that more challenging, pre-Internet modes of expression, like books, are going by the wayside. The notion is that knowledge-as-co-created by students is superior to knowledge-as-passed-along-by-teachers-and- books, regardless of quality. Perhaps the accuracy of the information co-created by students does not matter, because as shared information it enjoys a social validity that dusty old volumes and teachers speaking from authority cannot.

Considering the amount of play that collaborative learning and Web 2.0 educational methods have received recently, the merits of online communities have not at all been universally agreed-upon. Wikipedia, YouTube, Face book, and Twitter all have harsh critics. The sheer amount of information and activity in our always-on culture is fracturing our attention and hence our ability to process information.

If the educational proposals and predictions of the Internet boosters are taken seriously, in the place of a creative society with a reasonably deep well of liberally educated critical thinkers, we will have a society of drones, who are able to work together online but who are largely innocent of the texts and habits of study that encourage deep and independent thought. We will be bound by the prejudices of our 'digital tribe', ripe for manipulation by whoever has the firmest grip on our dialogue. Though we find evidence all around us that is pointing at our society moving headlong in that direction, it would be a profound mistake to think that the tools of the Internet can replace the effortful, careful development of the individual mind.

500 words essay on an exhibition

Recently an exhibition was held in our town. It was not on a grand scale like International Trade Fairs held in Delhi. Yet, it had its own importance. It was a very modest show, but well represented and well attended.

The district authorities had organized it to encourage the introduction of cottage industries in villages. The deputy commissioner and the local leaders took keen interest and put up a very good show. Never before had we realised that our village possessed such a vast scope for the development of cottage industries. We then realised that a vast heap of wealth was lying unused in villages.

The location of the exhibition was an open maidan near the railway station. A temporary fence was erected on all sides and temporary stalls were built to accommodate exhibits of different articles.

The exhibition lasted for about a week and was attended by thousands of people. Business worth thousands of rupees was transacted in it. The district authorities were pleased with its success.

A number of exhibits were on show. There were agricultural exhibits, which the farmers had displayed. There were vegetables of all kinds and sizes. One farmer had a peculiar turnip. I was surprised to see a plum which resembled a red apple. There was also on show specimens of cereals which attracted attention. There were also remarkable specimen of carrots and radish, sweet potatoes and tomatoes of different tastes and colours.

Pottery specimens were also exhibited. There were pots made by artisans of Rajasthan. There were apples, oranges, tomatoes, almonds, raisins and cardamoms of such fine shapes and colours that one could hardly distinguish them from the real ones. The different shades of colour were so beautifully laid that they deceived even the sharpest eye. They received praise from all and the artist who made them was awarded a gold medal

Textile products manufactured by local weavers also attracted attention. Their delicacy of texture and finesse of finish astonished us beyond any measure. We saw a piece of silk cloth which could beat in shimmer even the finest silk of China or Japan. The Muslim made by a local weaver was so light and fine that it appeared as if it were a relic of the ancient Dacca art.

A blacksmith had put up models of an aeroplane and an anti-aircraft gun which were highly appreciated. A carpenter had displayed a beautiful radio set and a goldsmith a wonderful golden idol of the Buddha in meditation.

The exhibition was a spontaneous success in every way. The local authorities were able to collect Rs. 2, 50,000 on the spot. It was decided that the amount be spent in awarding prizes for the best exhibitors.

One felt that the need for organising such exhibitions in villages and towns was great. Local cottage industries can be given an impetus if such exhibitions are organised from time to time. Local skill is not deficient, and if properly used, can add greatly to the wealth of India.

Essay on a visit to a village

Ever since I born, I have lived in Delhi. Since I had heard a lot about village, I wanted to visit one. And at last I got an opportunity.

One day our teacher decided that he would take us to a village, situated at a distance of 15 kilometers from Delhi. He wanted us to see for ourselves the crops of the season.

Sunday was the day fixed for the visit. We started in the morning in a bus. The journey from Delhi to the village was much fun. The moment we were out of Delhi we seemed to have entered a new world. The air tasted sweet. Everything was different from what we had seen in the city.

We reached the village in an hour. Our teacher contacted the village headman. The headman was an old man but strong, agile and healthy. He offered to take us round the fields.

Walking through the village I had a strange feeling. I felt free the way I had never felt before. There were no city crowds, no maddening din of the work-a-day world.

Nobody seemed to be in a hurry. There was no terror of the speeding traffic. It was all in complete contrast to what I had grown accustomed to in the city. I saw people just sitting outside their houses, doing nothing and then I saw others who were moving about to attend to their work. But none, working or idle, seemed to be pressed for time. There was a strange expression of calmness, contentment and courage on every face.

When we reached the fields we saw all the beauty of nature, all the wealth that mother earth yields to her beloved children pull grown, bountiful crops were waving in the fields. We stood on the edge of a field and saw the expanse of land before us, land laden with the fruit of human labour.

The scenery fascinated us. For a moment we forgot our city life. The experience was like a rebirth. Soon our teacher was telling us about the crops before us. All that we had read in books came alive before our eyes. The headman made everything all the more interesting by adding comments from his own experience.

We stayed in the fields for an hour or so. Then our teacher took us to a well. It was surrounded by trees. We sat under those trees and had our lunch which we had carried with us. The headman joined us on our invitation. He liked our lunch very much.

In the end our teacher thanked the headman and we started for home. It was indeed a day of joy for all of us, a day on which we really lived.

India’s Foreign Trade

Prior to British rule, India was famous in the world for its exportable items, which were bused on cottage and small scale industries. But during the British period India was forced to change its pattern of trade, exporting only the raw materials for British industries and importing the final products to provide a market of the English industries.

Before the Second World War, India was bound to export more than its import, in order to meet the unilateral transfer payments in the shape of salaries and pensions for British officials in India, resulting in a favourable balance of trade position. The direction of trade was pointed towards U.K. amounting 31 per cent of India's total import during 1938-39. However a considerable change in the composition, pattern and direction of trade took place during the planning era, though the deficit in the balance of payment account is increasingly is becoming high.

Foreign Trade during Plan Periods

The First Plan:

During the First Plan, the deficit in the balance of payment was worked out to be Rs 108 crores per annum. This was basically due to the import of developmental capital goods. However, there was no change in the export side during the plan period.

The Second Plan (1956-57-60-61):

The import of the country increased significantly during the 2nd plan period, as there was a change in the very structure of the economy. Due to the implementation of the Mohalanobis model, huge investment was to be made on basic and key industries.

Foreign technology, technical know-how and concessional capital constituted the main items of India's import. Further to meet the internal shortage, enough amounts of food grains had to be imported. The export during the period also slowed down and the much needed diversification of export and export-promotion did not materialise. There was an acute shortage of foreign exchange due to the unfavorable balance of payment situation.

The Third Plan (1961-62-65-66):

During the 3rd plan period, the average import of the country was at Rs 1,224 crores, while the corresponding import was only Rs. 747 crores, resulting in a huge trade deficit. The basic reason for this situation is the need for higher import for our materials and industrial and technical know-how and food grains during the period.

Devaluation of 1966 and period up to 1973-74:

Due to a continuous adverse balance of payment situation since 1951, acute foreign exchange position, growing international borrowing from abroad, India was compelled to devaluate the value of Rupee by 36.5 per cent in June 1966. Due to failure of agriculture, import of food grains became necessary which resulted in a further trade deficit.

However, due to favourable agriculture and reduction of food grain import, along with import restriction and export promotion measures, during 1972-73, the country was able to have a favourable balance of trade position. But in the next year, due to increase in the price of petroleum products, chemical fertilizer and newsprint in the global market again the deficit cropped up. However, the magnitude of deficit during 4th plan period was less than its earlier period.

The Fifth Plan (1974-75):

The value of imports during this period touched a very high level due to increase in prices of petroleum products, fertilizer and food grains. Export during the period also increased significantly, in fish, fish preparations, coffee, groundnuts, tea, cotton fabrics and ready-made garments. During 1976-77, the country experienced a trade surplus.

However during 1977-78 and in the next two years due to a unsystematic liberal import policy, along with stagnant export, the balance of trade became negative.

The Sixth and Seventh Plan:

Due to a further increase in the price of petroleum products, the import bill increased from Rs. 6,814 crores in 1978-79 to Rs.13, 608 crores in 1981-82. The outcome was unprecedented trade deficit, though the export increased considerably during the period. The average annual import during the 7th Plan was Rs 28,874 crores but export average stood up at Rs. 18,033 crores. The trade deficit compelled the Govt. to borrow Rs. 6.7 billions from World Bank and IMF.

Foreign trade from 1989-90 to 93-94:

In spite of a rise in exports, trade deficit shot up to a high figure of Rs. 10,635 crores due to increase in import value as an outcome of Gulf War. During 1991-92, the Govt. went for drastic import reduction and took many policies to increase export. But export in dollar-term did not rise. This was mainly due to the decline in export to Rupee Payment Area (RPA) by 42.5% in dollar terms during 1991-92. During 1991-93, trade-deficit further worsened. The import of oil rose by 13.5%. The disintegration of USSR resulted in an export decline. However, the exports to General Currency Area (GCA) rose by 10.4% in 1992-93, but in RPA it further declined. During 1993-94, export promotion measures, export increased by 19.6%, while the import increased by 6.1%. This resulted in a decline in trade deficit, which requires further to be sustained over a long period of time. The main features of foreign trade are as follows:

(1) Growing value of trade,

(2) Large growth of import,

(3) Inadequate expansion of exports.

(4) Resulting widening trade deficit.